Calculus and

Analytical Geometry

Instructor
LECTURES for week # 2 and 3
Dr. Muhammad Arif Hussain

Sweden
Topics to be Covered in week 2 and 3

Definition of function, domain, range, natural and restricted

domain, piecewise functions,
operations on functions, graphical representation of constant
functions, polynomial functions, rational functions,
trigonometric functions, composite functions, absolute
functions, sgm(x) function, floor/ceiling function, unit step
function and transformation of function
Grading Policy

Assignments (3 - 5) 10%
Quizzes (3 - 5) 10%
Midterm 30%
Final Exam 50%
 Function

We usually consider functions for which the sets D and E

are sets of real numbers. The set D is called the domain of
the function.

The number f (x) is the value of f at x and is read “f of x.”

The range of f is the set of all possible values of f (x) as x
varies throughout the domain.

A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain

of a function f is called an independent variable.
 f
x
x y

y
x

X Y

DOMAIN RANGE
 Function
Figure 1 shows a graph generated by seismic activity
during the Northridge earthquake that shook Los
Angeles in 1994. For a given value of t, the graph
provides a corresponding value of a.

Vertical ground acceleration during the

Northridge earthquake
Figure 1
 Function
A symbol that represents a number in the range of f is
called a dependent variable.
It’s helpful to think of a function as a machine
(see Figure 2).

Figure 2

Machine diagram for a function f

 Function
Another way to picture a function is by an arrow diagram as in
Figure 3.

Arrow diagram for f

Figure 3

Each arrow connects an element of D to an element of E. The

arrow indicates that f (x) is associated with x, f (a) is associated
with a, and so on.
 Function
Since the y-coordinate of any point (x, y) on the graph is
y = f (x), we can read the value of f (x) from the graph as
being the height of the graph above the point x
(see Figure 4).

Figure 4
 Example 1
The graph of a function f is shown in Figure 6.
(a) Find the values of f (1) and f (5).
(b) What are the domain and range of f ?

Figure 6
 Solution
(a) We see from Figure 6 that the point (1, 3) lies on the
graph of f, so the value of f at 1 is f (1) = 3. (In other
words, the point on the graph that lies above x = 1 is 3
units above the x-axis.)

When x = 5, the graph lies about 0.7 unit below the

x-axis, so we estimate that f(5)  –0.7.

(b) We see that f (x) is defined when 0  x  7, so the

domain of f is the closed interval [0, 7]. Notice that f
takes on all values from –2 to 4, so the range of f is

{y | –2  y  4} = [–2, 4]
Function of ONE Variable

f(x) = 2 x + 3
 Linear Function

Graph: 5

4
Rule
3
Domain
Range
2

1
x

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
CONSTANT Function

f(x) = c
 Parent Functions and Transformations

Constant Function

Graph: 5
y
Rule
4

3 Domain
2
Range
1
x

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
 Reciprocal Function

Graph: 5
y

4 Rule
3

1
x

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
 Graph .

𝒇 ( 𝒙 ) =𝒙𝟑 −𝟐 𝒙 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝒉 ( 𝒙 )=|𝒙 𝟑 −𝟐 𝒙|

𝒉 ( 𝒙 ) =|𝒙 𝟑 − 𝟐 𝒙|
6 y

1
x

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6
• Ex: For the function f(x) = 2 – x2 , evaluate
the following: f(x+1)
f ( x  1)  2  ( x  1)
2 2
2  ( x  2 x  1)
2  x  2x 1
2
 x2  2 x  1
• Ex: For the function f(x) = x2 + x , evaluate
the following: f(2x)

f (2 x)  (2 x)  (2 x)
2
4x2  2x
 Finding Domain and Range
• To find range, graph the function and infer the
range.
• Ex: Find the domain and range of the function
– Graph the function first. y  x 3
– For the domain, we know from the equation given
that x ≥ 3. Our graph confirms that.
– For the range, the graph shows us
that there are no negative values
for y, and the values will continue
to increase as x increases.
– Range: y ≥ 0
Graph of linear function
Absolute function
 Functions
• A function is even if it is
symmetric about the y-axis
– f(-x) = f(x)

• A function is odd if it is
symmetric about the origin
f(-x) = -f(x)

• A graph symmetric about the

x-axis is…
– …not a function!
Power Functions
Example
Sketch the graph. Using the points:
the graph follows.
 Even Functions
Graph x2, x4, x6 and compare/contrast the
graphs.
y


All have shape similar
to x2.


Same domain and


range
All have the same end


behavior.
  
All are bounded below
  
x

b=0.


All have even

 symmetry.
 Odd Functions
Graph x, x3, x5 and compare/contrast the
y

graphs. 
All have the same end

behavior.
All are unbounded
All have odd


   
symmetry.
 
x


All increase on (-∞,∞)
Domain and Range all
reals



All go through (-1,-1),
 All functions
Graph x, x2, x3,x4, x5, x6 with window [0,1]
by[0,1]
y


Lower the
power the
higher the
graph with x
values between
0 and 1.


 All functions
Graph x, x2, x3,x4, x5, x6 with window [0,2]
by[0,2]

y

The higher the

power the higher
the function with
x values greater
than 1.


 
Polynomials and Rational functions
 Polynomials and Rational functions

I. Polynomials. They look like

II. Rational functions. They look like

Plots of two curves using computer
application WOLFRAM ALPHA
 Open a browser and go to
www.wolframalpha.com

Wolfram
Command plot x2, x3
window
Computer Output
New function from old function
 New Functions From Old

There are Four Ways to build new functions from old:

1. By adding or subtracting a constant from the
function y
2. By adding or subtracting a constant from the independent
variable x
3. By multiplying the function y by a constant
4. By multiplying the independent variable x by a constant.
 Vertical Shifting

Consider y = f(x) = x2 and four related quadratic

functions

2 2
𝑦 =𝑥 + 1 𝑦 =𝑥 − 2 Look at the graphs of all these
2
𝑦 =𝑥 + 3
2
𝑦 =𝑥 −5 functions in figure 7.1

The original
parabola
has been shifted
up/down
depending on
what constant
was added or
subtracted to it.
Impact on f(x) when Adding/Subtracting a Constant to x

Consider
2 2
𝑦 =( 𝑥 − 1) 𝑦 =( 𝑥 − 3) What is the effect of the constant in
𝑦 =( 𝑥+2)
2 each of these functions? (see figure
7.4)
Function composition
 Function composition

The composition of f(x) and g(x) is

( f ‫ ס‬g )(x) = f (g (x))
In other words, compositions are
evaluated by plugging the second function
listed into the first function listed. Note as well
that order is important here. Interchanging the
order will usually result in a different answer.
 Function composition
Example Given f (x) = 3x2 − x +10 and g (x) =1− 20x find each of the
following.
(a) ( f ‫ ס‬g )(5)
(b) (f ‫ ס‬g)(x)
(c) (g ‫ ס‬f )(x)
(d) (g ‫ ס‬g )(x)
Solution
 Graph of Quadratic Equation

Graph y = 2x2 – 4. y

(–2, 4) (2, 4)
x y

2 4
1 –2 x
(–1, – 2) (1, –2)
0 –4
–1 –2
(0, –4)
–2 4
Solution to problems
Some Problems
Solutions
Plots of two lines using computer
application WOLFRAM ALPHA
 Open a browser and go to
www.wolframalpha.com

Wolfram
Command plot 2x -3, 2x
window
Computer Output
 Graph of Quadratic Equation

Graph y = 2x2 – 4. y

(–2, 4) (2, 4)
x y

2 4
1 –2 x
(–1, – 2) (1, –2)
0 –4
–1 –2
(0, –4)
–2 4
Checking functions
 Function ?
The parabola x = y2 – 2 shown in Figure 14(a) is not the
graph of a function of x because, as you can see, there are
vertical lines that intersect the parabola twice. The
parabola, however, does contain the graphs of two
functions of x.

x = y2 – 2
Figure 14(a)
 Functions
Notice that the equation x = y2 – 2 implies y2 = x + 2, so
.

Thus the upper and lower halves of the parabola are the
graphs of the functions and
[See Figures 14(b) and (c).]

Figure 14(b) Figure 14(c)

 Piecewise Defined Functions
In general, we have

(Remember that if a is negative, then –a is positive.)

 Example
Sketch the graph of the absolute value function f (x) = |x|.

Solution:
From the preceding discussion we know that

x if x  0
|x| =
–x if x < 0
 Solution
The graph of f coincides with the line y = x to the right of
the y-axis and coincides with the line y = –x to the left of the

y-axis (see Figure 16).

Figure 16
 Step functions
The is following graph of step functions

step functions—they jump from one value to the next.

 Symmetry
If a function f satisfies f (–x) = f (x) for every number x in its
domain, then f is called an even function. For instance, the
function f (x) = x2 is even because

f (–x) = (–x)2 = x2 = f (x)

The geometric significance of an

even function is that its graph is
symmetric with respect to the y-axis
(see Figure 19).

An even function
Figure 19
 Odd function

If f satisfies f (–x) = –f (x) for every number x in its domain,

then f is called an odd function. For example, the function
f (x) = x3 is odd because

f (–x) = (–x)3 = –x3 = –f (x)

 Symmetry
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin
(see Figure 20).

An odd function
Figure 20
 Example
Determine whether each of the following functions is even,
odd, or neither even nor odd.
(a) f (x) = x5 + x (b) g (x) = 1 – x4 (c) h (x) = 2x – x2

Solution:
(a) f (–x) = (–x)5 + (–x) = (–1)5x5 + (–x)

= –x5 – x = –(x5 + x)

= –f (x)

Therefore f is an odd function.

 Solution cont’d

(b) g (–x) = 1 – (–x)4 = 1 – x4 = g (x)

So g is even.

(c) h(–x) = 2(–x) – (–x)2 = –2x – x2

Since h(–x)  h (x) and h(–x)  –h (x), we conclude that h

is neither even nor odd.

Increasing and Decreasing
Functions
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
The graph shown in Figure 22 rises from A to B, falls from
B to C, and rises again from C to D. The function f is said to
be increasing on the interval [a, b], decreasing on [b, c],
and increasing again on [c, d].

Figure 22
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Notice that if x1 and x2 are any two numbers between
a and b with x1 < x2, then f (x1) < f (x2).

We use this as the defining property of an increasing

function.
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
In the definition of an increasing function it is important to
realize that the inequality f (x1) < f (x2) must be satisfied for
every pair of numbers x1 and x2 in I with x1 < x2.

You can see from Figure 23

that the function f (x) = x2 is
decreasing on the interval (– , 0]
and increasing on the interval
[0, ).

Figure 23
 Signum Function

It is denoted by
Graph of Signum Function
Greatest integer Function(Step
Function)
Graph of Greatest Integer
Function:
 Greatest Integer Function:

y  greatest integer that is  x

x y
0 0
0.5 0
0.75 0
1 1
 Greatest Integer Function:

y  greatest integer that is  x

x y
0 0
0.5 0
0.75 0
1 1
1.5 1
2 2
 Greatest Integer Function:

y  greatest integer that is  x

x y
0 0
0.5 0
0.75 0
1 1
1.5 1
2 2
 Greatest Integer Function:

y  greatest integer that is  x

x y
0 0
0.5 0
0.75 0
1 1
1.5 1
2 2
 Greatest Integer Function:

y  greatest integer that is  x

The greatest integer function is also called

the floor function.

The notation for the floor function is:

y   x 


Trigonometric Functions
 Graph of

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑓sin ¿𝑥= ( − ∞, + ∞ ) = ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑓sin 𝑥=[−1,1]
 Graph of

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑓cos ¿𝑥= ( − ∞, + ∞ ) = ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑓cos𝑥=[−1,1 ]
Graph of
Graph of
Graph of