MODULE 2

 DATA LINK LAYER

10.1
 Note

Data can be corrupted

during transmission.

Some applications require that

errors be detected and corrected.

10.2
 10-1 INTRODUCTION

Let us first discuss some issues related, directly

or indirectly, to error detection and correction.

Topics discussed in this section:

Types of Errors
Redundancy
Detection Versus Correction

10.3
 Note

In a single-bit error, only 1 bit in the data

unit has changed.

10.4
 Figure 10.1 Single-bit error

10.5
 Note

A burst error means that 2 or more

bits in the data unit have changed.

10.6
 Figure 10.2 Burst error of length
8

10.7
 Note

To detect or correct errors, we need to

send extra (redundant) bits with data.

10.8
 Figure 10.3 The structure of encoder and
decoder

10.9
 10-2 BLOCK CODING

In block coding, we divide our message into blocks,

each of k bits, called datawords. We add r redundant
bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The
resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords.

Topics discussed in this section:

Error Detection
Error Correction
1. Hamming
Distance
2. Minimum
10.10 Hamming
 Figure 10.6 Process of error detection in block
coding

10.11
 Note

An error-detecting code can detect

only the types of errors for which it
is designed; other types of errors
may remain undetected.

10.12
 Note

The Hamming distance between two

words is the number of differences
between corresponding bits.

10.13
 Example 10.4

Let us find the Hamming distance between two pairs of

words.

1. The Hamming distance d(000, 011) is 2 because

2. The Hamming distance d(10101, 11110) is 3 because

10.14
 Note

The minimum Hamming distance is the

smallest Hamming distance between
all possible pairs in a set of words.

10.15
 Example 10.5

Find the minimum Hamming distance of the following

coding 000,011,101,110
Solution
We first find all Hamming distances.

The dmin in this case is 2.

10.16
 Example 10.6

Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding

scheme in Table 10.2.

Solution
We first find all the Hamming distances.

The dmin in this case is 3.

10.17
 10-3 LINEAR BLOCK
CODES
Almost all block codes used today belong to a subset
called linear block codes. A linear block code is a code
in which the exclusive OR (addition modulo-2) of two
valid codewords creates another valid codeword.

Topics discussed in this section:

Minimum Distance for Linear Block
Codes Some Linear Block Codes

10.18
 Note

In a linear block code, the exclusive OR

(XOR) of any two valid codewords
creates another valid codeword.

10.19
 Methods

 Simple Parity
 Two Dimensional Parity

10.20
 Note

A simple parity-check code is a

single-bit error-detecting
code in which
n = k + 1 with dmin = 2.

10.21
 Table 10.3 Simple parity-check code C(5,
4)

10.22
 Error in Simple Parity Check
(even parity)
Dataword= 0010
Codeword=00100 (wrong answer)
…correct answer=00101

10.23
 Figure 10.10 Encoder and decoder for simple parity-check
code

10.24
  Two-dimensional parity-
check code

10.25
 Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code (even)

10.26
 Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code

10.27
 Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code

10.28
 Table 10.4 Hamming code C(7,
4)

10.29
 Figure 10.12 The structure of the encoder and decoder for a Hamming
code

10.30
 Table 10.5 Logical decision made by the correction logic
analyzer

10.31
 Figure 10.13 Burst error correction using Hamming
code

10.32
 11-1 FRAMING

The data link layer needs to pack bits into frames, so

that each frame is distinguishable from another. Our
postal system practices a type of framing. The simple
act of inserting a letter into an envelope separates one
piece of information from another; the envelope serves
as the delimiter.
Topics discussed in this section:
Fixed-Size Framing
Variable-Size Framing

11.33
 Types of Frames

 Character-oriented protocol

 Byte stuffing

 Bit stuffing

11.34
 Figure 11.1 A frame in a character-oriented
protocol

Example
 542143564789

11.35
 Figure 11.2 Byte stuffing and unstuffing

11.36
 Note

Byte stuffing is the process of adding 1

extra byte whenever there is a flag or
escape character in the text.

• By using the Escape character and escape sequences, byte

stuffing allows the transmission of data containing reserved
characters without causing misinterpretation of these characters as
frame delimiters.
• This technique is commonly employed in communication protocols
to ensure reliable framing and data transmission.

11.37
 Figure 11.3 A frame in a bit-oriented
protocol

11.38
 Note

Bit stuffing is the process of adding one

extra 0 whenever five consecutive 1s
follow a 0 in the data, so that the
receiver does not mistake
the pattern 0111110 for a flag.

11.39
 Figure 11.4 Bit stuffing and unstuffing

11.40
 11-2 FLOW AND ERROR
CONTROL
The most important responsibilities of the data link
layer are flow control and error control. Collectively,
these functions are known as data link control.

Topics discussed in this section:

Flow Control
Error Control

11.41
 Note

Flow control refers to a set of procedures

used to restrict the amount of data
that the sender can send
before waiting for
acknowledgment.

11.42
 Note

Error control in the data link layer is

based on automatic repeat request,
which is the retransmission of data.

11.43
 11-3 PROTOCOLS

Now let us see how the data link layer can combine
framing, flow control, and error control to achieve the
delivery of data from one node to another. The
protocols are normally implemented in software by
using one of the common programming languages. To
make our discussions language-free, we have written
in pseudocode a version of each protocol that
concentrates mostly on the procedure instead of
delving into the details of language rules.

11.44
 Figure 11.5 Taxonomy of protocols discussed in this chapter

11.45
 Terminology
 Sequence No.- It is a number given to each outbound
frame
 Sliding Window- These are imaginary boxes at
transmitter & receiver.
 Acknowlegement--An acknowledgement (ACK)
is
a signal that communicating processes, computers,
or devices to signify acknowledgement, or receipt
of message, as part of a communications protocol.
 Positive
10.56
 11-4 NOISELESS CHANNELS

Let us first assume we have an ideal channel in which

no frames are lost, duplicated, or corrupted. We
introduce two protocols for this type of channel.

Topics discussed in this section:

Simplest Protocol
Stop-and-Wait Protocol

11.57
 Figure 11.6 The design of the simplest protocol with no flow or error
control

11.48
 Example 11.1

Figure 11.7 shows an example of communication using

this protocol. It is very simple. The sender sends a
sequence of frames without even thinking
about the receiver. To send three frames, three events
occur at the sender site and three events at the receiver
site. Note that the data frames are shown by tilted
boxes; the height of the box defines the transmission
time difference between the first bit and the last bit in the
frame.

11.49
 Figure 11.7 Flow diagram for Example
11.1

11.50
 Figure 11.8 Design of Stop-and-Wait Protocol

11.51
 Example 11.2

Figure 11.9 shows an example of communication using

this protocol. It is still very simple. The sender sends one
frame and waits for feedback from the receiver. When the
ACK arrives, the sender sends the next frame. Note that
sending two frames in the protocol involves the sender in
four events and the receiver in two events.

11.52
 Figure 11.9 Flow diagram for Example
11.2

11.53
 11-5 NOISY
CHANNELS
Although the Stop-and-Wait Protocol gives us an idea
of how to add flow control to its predecessor, noiseless
channels are nonexistent. We discuss three protocols
in this section that use error control.

Topics discussed in this section:

Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request

11.54
 Note

Error correction in Stop-and-Wait ARQ is

done by keeping a copy of the sent
frame and retransmitting of the frame
when the timer expires.

11.55
 Note

In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, we use sequence

numbers to number the frames.
The sequence numbers are based on
modulo-2 arithmetic.

11.56
 Note

In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, the

acknowledgment number always
announces in modulo-2 arithmetic the
sequence number of the next frame
expected.

11.57
 Figure 11.10 Design of the Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol

11.58
 Example 11.3

Figure 11.11 shows an example of Stop-and-Wait ARQ.

Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged. Frame 1 is lost and
resent after the time-out. The resent frame 1 is
acknowledged and the timer stops. Frame 0 is sent and
acknowledged, but the acknowledgment is lost. The
sender has no idea if the frame or the acknowledgment
is lost, so after the time-out, it resends frame 0, which is
acknowledged.

11.59
 Figure 11.11 Flow diagram for Example
11.3

11.60
 Note

In the Go-Back-N Protocol, the sequence

numbers are modulo 2m,
where m is the size of the sequence
number field in bits.

11.61
 Note

The send window is an abstract concept

defining an imaginary box of size 2m − 1
with three variables: Sf, Sn, and Ssize.

11.62
 Note

The send window can slide one

or more slots when a valid
acknowledgment arrives.

11.63
 Figure 11.14 Design of Go-Back-N ARQ

11.64
 Note

In Go-Back-N ARQ, the size of the send

window must be less than 2m;
the size of the receiver window
is always 1.

11.65
 Example 11.7

Figure 11.17 shows what happens when a frame is lost.

Frames 0, 1, 2, and 3 are sent. However, frame 1 is lost.
The receiver receives frames 2 and 3, but they are
discarded because they are received out of order. The
sender receives no acknowledgment about frames 1, 2, or
3. Its timer finally expires. The sender sends all
outstanding frames (1, 2, and 3) because it does not know
what is wrong. Note that the resending of frames 1, 2, and
3 is the response to one single event. When the sender is
responding to this event, it cannot accept the triggering of
other events. This means that when ACK 2 arrives, the
sender is still busy with sending frame 3.
11.66
 Example 11.7 (continued)

The physical layer must wait until this event is completed

and the data link layer goes back to its sleeping state. We
have shown a vertical line to indicate the delay. It is the
same story with ACK 3; but when ACK 3 arrives, the
sender is busy responding to ACK 2. It happens again
when ACK 4 arrives. Note that before the second timer
expires, all outstanding frames have been sent and the
timer is stopped.

11.67
 Figure 11.17 Flow diagram for Example
11.7

11.68
 Note

Stop-and-Wait ARQ is a special case of

Go-Back-N ARQ in which the size of
the send window is 1.

11.69
 Figure 11.20 Design of Selective Repeat
ARQ

11.70
 Note

In Selective Repeat ARQ, the size of

the sender and receiver window
must be at most one-half of 2m.

11.71
 Figure 11.23 Flow diagram for Example
11.8

11.72