7.

1: The History of the Cell Theory

• Before microscopes were invented, people

believed that diseases were caused by
curses and supernatural spirits.
• As scientists began using microscopes,
they quickly realized they were entering a
new world–one of microorganisms.
• Microscopes enabled scientists to view
and study cells, the basic units of living
organisms.
 Development of Light
Microscopes
• The first person to record looking at water under a
microscope was Anton van Leeuwenhoek.
• The microscope van Leeuwenhoek used is considered a
simple light microscope because it contained one lens and
used natural light to view objects.
• Compound light microscopes use a series of lenses to
magnify objects in steps.

• These microscopes can

magnify objects up to
1500 times.
 The Cell Theory
• Robert Hooke was an English scientist
who lived at the same time as van
Leeuwenhoek.
• Hooke used a compound light microscope
to study cork, the dead cells of oak bark.
• Cells are the basic building blocks of all
living things.
 The cell theory is made up of three
main ideas:
• All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
• The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of
organisms.
• All cells come from preexisting cells.
Three Scientists contributed to the Cell Theory:
• 1838- Schleiden: plants are made of cells
• 1939- Schwann: animals are made of cells
• 1855- Virchow: New cells are produced from the
division of old cells
 Development of Electron
Microscopes
• The electron microscope was There are two basic types of
invented in the 1940s. electron microscopes.
• This microscope uses a beam
of electrons to magnify
• The scanning electron
structures up to 500,000 times
their actual size. microscope scans the surface
of cells to learn their three
dimensional shape.

• The transmission electron

microscope allows scientists to
study the structures contained
within a cell.
 Scanning Probe Microscope
• Discovered in the 1990’s
• Produces images by tracing the surfaces of
samples with a fine probe
• Can observe single atoms in the air or in
solution
Natural laws limit cell size
• Large cells have a
smaller ratio of surface
area to volume than
small cells
• cells must be small
enough to have a
surface area which can
supply nutrient needs
• cells must be large
enough to hold all
required molecules and
organelles
 Two Basic Cell Types
Cell membrane Cytoplasm

Prokaryotic Cell
Cell membrane

Cytoplasm

Nucleus
Eukaryotic Cell
Organelles

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

 Prokaryotic Cells
• Cells that do not • Unicellular organisms
contain internal such as bacteria are
membrane-bound very simple.
structures and do not • They still carry out all
have a nucleus are of life’s activities such
called prokaryotic as respiration, cell
cells. reproduction, growth,
etc.
Prokaryotic
Cell
 Eukaryotic Cells
• Cells containing
membrane-bound
• Most of the multi-
structures and a
nucleus are called cellular plants and
eukaryotic cells. animals are made up
of cells that are very
specialized and
diverse in their
structures and
functions

Eukaryotic Cell
 7.2 Eukaryotic Cell Structure
Organelles Biologists divide the cell into
• The membrane-bound two major parts
structures within eukaryotic • The nucleus is the central
cells are called organelles. membrane-bound organelle that
• Each “little organ” has a manages cellular functions.
specific function that • Everything between the cell
contributes to cell survival. membrane and the nucleus is
• Separation of organelles into called the cytoplasm.
distinct compartments
benefits the eukaryotic cells.

• Lysosomes
• Nucleus
• Plasma Membrane
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Mitochondrion
 Nucleus
- Nuclear envelope – double layered membrane surrounding
nucleus; contains small pores
- Nuclear pores- allow transport of materials in and out of nucleus
- Chromatin-granular material visible within the nucleus; consists of
DNA tightly coiled around proteins
- Chromosomes – threadlike Chromatin Nucleolus
structure within the nucleus
containing the genetic
information that is passed
from one generation of cells
to the next (chromosomes are
formed when chromatin
condenses during cell division)
- Nucleolus – dense material Nuclear
in nucleus; makes Envelope
ribosomes which make
proteins Nuclear Pore
 Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are made in the
nucleolus.
• Ribosomes are small
• They travel in and out of the particles within the cell
nucleus throught he nuclear on which proteins are
pores. assembled; made of
RNA and protein
• They can be free (in the
Ribosomes cytoplasm)
• They are also attached
to the rough endoplasm
reticulum
 Endoplasmic reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum
(ER) is responsible for
assembly, transport, and
storage of molecules within
cell.
• There are two types

• Rough ER- contains

ribosomes and makes
proteins
• Smooth ER- lacks
ribosomes; has enzymes
that make membrane lipids
and detoxifies drugs
• Liver cells contain many
smooth ER for
detoxification
Golgi Apparatus
• Stacks of membranes in
the cell that modifies,
sorts, and packages
proteins from the
endoplasmic reticulum

• The Golgi apparatus

is like a customization
shop where finishing
touches are added to
proteins.
 Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are organelles that contain
digestive enzymes. They digest excess or
worn out organelles, food particles, and
engulfed viruses or bacteria.
• The lysosomes are the clean-up crew of the
cell
• Tay-Sachs disease is caused by excess lipid
accumulation on the brain. The cause of this
disease has been traced to lysosomes that
failed to function properly
 Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are membrane-bound spaces used for
temporary storage of materials (such as water,
salts, proteins, and carbohydrates)
• Notice the difference between vacuoles in plant
and animal cells.
Plant
Animal Vacuole Cell
Cell

• Paramecium have a contractile vacuole that pumps

excess water out of the cell, which aids with
homeostasis
• Mitochondria are
Mitochondria
• Cellular respiration is the
membrane-bound
process that converts
organelles in plant and
animal cells that transform chemical energy stored in
energy for the cell. food into ATP energy for
• A mitochondria, like the cells to use.
endoplasmic reticulum, • Muscles cells (needed for
has a highly folded inner movement) contain a large
membrane. number of mitochondria for
• The folds increase the energy production
surface area of the
mitochondrion in order to
make more energy (ATP)
• Cellular Respiration takes
place in the mitochondria
of cells
 Chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts are found in
cells of plants and some
other organisms
• Chloroplasts are organelles
that capture light energy
and produce food to store
for a later time.
• Photosynthesis takes place • Chlorophyll traps light
in the chloroplasts energy and gives leaves
• Chloroplasts contain green and stems their green
pigment called chlorophyll. color.
• Chloroplasts acts like a
solar power plant
 Cytoskeleton
• Cells have a support structure called the • Microtubules are
cytoskeleton within the cytoplasm.
thin, hollow
• It is a network of proteins that help maintain
cellular shape and movement cylinders made of
• The cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules protein that
and microfilaments. maintain cell
shape
• Microfilaments
Cell membrane are thin solid
protein fibers
that help cells
Endoplasmic move (amoeba)
reticulum

Microtubule

Microfilament

Ribosomes Mitochondrion
 Centrioles
• Made of microtubules
• one of two tiny structures located in the cytoplasm of
animal cells near the nuclear envelope
• help to organize cell division (helps cells split into two)
• only found in animal cells
 Cilia and Flagella Cilia
• Some cell surfaces have cilia and
flagella, which are structures that
aid in locomotion or feeding. Cilia
and flagella can be distinguished by
their structure and by the nature of
their action.

• Cilia are short, numerous, hair-like

projections that move in a wavelike
motion.
• Flagella are long projections that
move in a whip-like motion. Flagella
and cilia are the major means of
locomotion in unicellular organisms. Flagella
 The Plasma Membrane
• All living cells must maintain a balance
regardless of internal and external
conditions. Survival depends on the
cell’s ability to maintain the proper
conditions within itself.

Why cells must control materials

• The plasma membrane is the

boundary between the cell and its
environment.

It is the plasma membrane’s job to:

• allow a steady supply of glucose, amino acids, and lipids to come
into the cell no matter what the external conditions are.
• remove excess amounts of these nutrients when levels get so
high that they are harmful.
• allow waste and other products to leave the cell.
 Cell membrane
• This process of
maintaining the cell’s Plasma
Membrane
environment is called
homeostasis.
• Selective permeability is
a process used to Water
maintain homeostasis in
which the plasma
membrane allows some
molecules into the cell
while keeping others out.
 Structure of the Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane is
composed of two layers of
phospholipids back-to-back.
• Phospholipids are lipids with a
phosphate attached to them.

Phosphate
Group
• The lipids in a plasma
Glycerol
Backbone membrane have a
glycerol backbone, two
Two Fatty fatty acid chains, and a
Acid Chains phosphate group.
 Makeup of the phospholipid bilayer
• The phosphate group is
critical for the formation Phosphate Group
and function of the
plasma membrane.

• The fluid mosaic model describes the plasma membrane as

a flexible boundary of a cell. The phospholipids move within
the membrane.
 Other components of the plasma
membrane: Cholesterol
Molecule
• Cholesterol plays the
important role of
preventing the fatty acid
chains of the
phospholipids from
sticking together.

• Transport proteins allow

needed substances or waste
materials to move through the
plasma membrane.
 Cellular Boundaries
• The plasma membrane acts
as a selectively permeable
membrane.

• The cell wall is a fairly

rigid structure located
outside the plasma
membrane that provides
additional support and
protection.
 Diffusion
• process by which • Equilibrium- when the
molecules tend to concentration of a
move from an area solute is the same
where they are more throughout the
concentrated to an solution
area where they are
less concentrated
 Osmosis
• diffusion of water through a selectively permeable
membrane
 Hypertonic
Solution

• concentration of
solutes in solution is
higher than the
concentration of
solutes inside the cell
• causes water to
diffuse out of the cell;
may cause cell to
shrivel and shrink;
disrupts metabolism
and may kill cell
 Hypotonic
Solution
• concentration of
solutes is lower than
the concentration
inside the cell
• causes water to diffuse
into the cell
• animal cells may burst
in a hypotonic solution
• plant cells do not burst
because they are
surrounded by a rigid
cell wall
 Isotonic
Solution
• the concentration of
solutes equals the
concentration of solutes
inside the cell
• does not result in the net
diffusion of water into or
out of the cell
• kidneys and skin help to
maintain isotonic
conditions in your body
 Facilitated Diffusion
• movement of specific
molecules across cell Glucose
molecules
membranes through
protein channels High
• passive - does not Concentration
require an input of
energy
Cell
• always moves particles Membrane
down a concentration
gradient
• because these Protein
molecules re polar they Low channel
Concentration
must travel through
channels in transport
proteins; ex: glucose
 Active Transport Molecule to
be carried
• energy-requiring process that
moves material across a cell
membrane against a
concentration difference
• requires energy from ATP
molecules
• can move particles up a
Energy
concentration gradient (from low
to high)
• requires carrier proteins to Molecule
being carried
“pump” particles across
membrane
• ex: Na-K pumps in nerve cells,
movement of nutrients into plant
roots
 Endocytosis
• process by which a cell
takes material into the cell
by infolding of the cell
membrane
Two Types
• Phagocytosis-process in
which extensions of
cytoplasm surround and
engulf large particles and
take them into the cell
• Pinocytosis-process by
which a cell takes in a
liquid from the
surrounding environment
 Exocytosis
• wastes and cell
products leave the
cell by fusing with
membrane;
products packaged
by Golgi apparatus
and excreted from
cell
 7.4- Diversity of Cellular Life
Unicellular Organisms Multicellular Organisms
• Sometimes single • Made up of many cells
cells are the organism • Very diverse
• Grow, respond to the • Depend on
environment, communication and
transform energy, and cooperation between
reproduce specialized cells
Cell specialization
• Cells throughout an
organism can develop in
different ways to perform
different tasks
 Cell Specialization
Animal cells Plant Cells
• Red Blood Cells • Guard cells
• Pancreatic Cells
• Muscle Cells
 Levels of Organization
Muscle cell Smooth muscle tissue Stomach Digestive system

• Many multicellular organisms have structures called organs that

have a specific function and work with other organs.
• Working together, these organs carry out the life processes of
the entire organism.