FLOW MEASUREMENT

1
TYPES OF FLOWS ENCOUNTERED IN REAL
LIFE SITUATIONS
Flow measurements are essential in many applications such as transportation of
solids as slurries, compressed natural gas in pipelines, water and gas supply systems
to domestic consumers, irrigation systems and a number of industrial process control
systems. The types of flows encountered in the measurements may be any one or
combination of the following types:
 clean or dirty/opaque,
 wetting the surface type or non-wetting type,
 hazardous/corrosive or safe,
 single-phase, two-phase or multiphase,
 laminar or transitional or turbulent,
 pressure may vary from vacuums to high pressures of many atmospheres,
 temperature may vary from cryogenic levels to hundreds of centigrades,
 flow rate may be of miniscule type, i.e., few drops per minute or massive type
involving thousands of litres per minute.
The selection of a particular flow-measuring equipment depends primarily on the
nature of the metered fluid and the demands of the associated plant.
Additionally, the other factors that govern the choice of a particular flow metering
device are the various performance parameters like range, accuracy, repeatability,
linearity, dynamic response, type of output like analog/digital, etc.

2
TYPES OF FLOW METERS
Contd.
Flow measuring devices generally fall into one of the two categories,
namely:
(a) Primary devices or quantity meters and Contd.
(b) Secondary devices known as rate meters.
The distinction between the two is based on the character of the sensing
element that interacts with the fluid flow. The output of the sensing
element is then suitably modified so as to indicate or record the
measured values.
Quantity measurements, by mass or volume, are usually accomplished
by counting successive isolated portions.
Rate measurements are inferred from effects of flow rates on pressure,
force, heat transfer, flow area, etc. It is quite often possible to obtain the
rate of flow from a quantity meter by a suitable choice of modifying
elements.
Lastly, it is important to note that the quantity meters are generally
used for the calibration of rate meters.

3
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(PRIMARY DEVICES OR QUANTITY METERS)
(a) Primary devices or quantity meters
In this technique, the time required to collect a particular amount of fluid is
determined accurately and then the average flow rate can be evaluated. The
measurement is not only simple and economical but also is extremely accurate.
Because of this, it is routinely used in the calibration of other flow measuring devices.
(i) Volumetric method:
In the volumetric method, the fluid flowing in the flow meter which is being
calibrated, is diverted into a tank of known volume. When the tank is
completely filled, then this known volume is compared with the integrated,
volumetric quantity registered by the flow meter under test.
(ii) Gravimetric method:
In gravimetric method, the fluid flowing in the flow meter, which is being
calibrated, is diverted into a vessel which can be weighed either
continuously or in the vessel after a pre-determined time. The weight of the
liquid collected is compared with the gravimetric quantity registered by the
flow meter under test.
4
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS)
Contd.
(b) Positive displacement flow meters: Contd.
The term positive-displacement meter is applied to a flow measuring device
so designed that the metered fluid is repeatedly filled and emptied from a
space of known volume.
The principle of this measurement is that the liquid flows through a meter
and moves the measuring element that seals the measuring chamber into a
series of measuring compartments each holding a definite volume. Each
element is successively filled from the flow at the inlet and emptied at the
outlet of the meter.
In other words, we could say that positive-displacement meters chop the flow
into ‘pieces’ of known size and then count the number of ‘pieces’.
(i) Nutating disc meter: Contd.
The nutating disc meter consists of an eccentrically mounted disc which
nutates or wobbles in the metering chamber which has spherical sides. The
liquid enters the left side of the meter, alternately above and below the
disc, forcing it to rock (nutate or wobble) in a circular path while rotating
about its own axis. Contd.
5
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS)
Contd.
(b) Positive displacement flow meters: Contd.
(i) Nutating disc meter: Contd.
The liquid from the inlet, as shown in the figure, causes the disc to nutate
before it goes to the outlet. Further, the viscosity of the liquid ensures both
sealing and lubrication.
A small spindle attached to the sphere traces a circular path and is used to
drive the mechanical or electronic counter which can be calibrated in
terms of liquid discharge.

Fig.: Schematic diagram of a nutating disc meter

6
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS)
Contd.
(b) Positive displacement flow meters: Contd.
(ii) Sliding vane type meter:
This type of meter has a rotor with four
evenly spaced slots which form the guides
for the vanes. The metered liquid entering
the inlet revolves the rotor and the vanes
around a cam causing the vanes to move
radially.
The vane nearest to the inlet port begins to
move outwards and becomes fully extended
at point A shown in the figure. The vane
ahead at point B is already fully extended
and thus a measuring chamber of known
volume is formed between the two vanes and
the meter body. Fig.: Schematic diagram of a
A continuous series of chambers at the rate
sliding vane type meter
of four per revolution are formed which
deliver the flow at the outlet.

7
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METERS)
Contd.
(b) Positive displacement flow meters: Contd.
(iii) Lobed impeller meter:
This type of meter consists of two rotors mounted on separate parallel shafts. The rotors
are lobed and revolve in opposite directions in a close fitting chamber.
The rotor lobes have cycloidal or involute shape which ensures accurate mating. The
incoming fluid is trapped between the two rotors and is conveyed to the outlet as a result
of the rotation of the rotors.
For every rotation of each rotor, the
swept volume corresponding to twice
the area A, shown in the figure is
passed through the meter.
Thus the number of revolutions of the
rotor gives an indication of the
volumetric flow.
Since the speed of rotation is
proportional to the volume flow rate,
the rate of flow display can also be Fig.: Schematic diagram of a
obtained by monitoring the speed of lobbed impeller meter
rotation of one of the rotor shafts.

8
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(SECONDARY FLOW RATE METERS)
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow rate meters: Contd.
The secondary or rate meters are also termed as inferential type of flow
measuring devices. This is because of the fact that they do not measure the
flow directly but instead measure another physical quantity which is related
to the flow.
These devices fall into two categories, namely:
(i) Flow rate meters (ii) Velocity meters
The transduction The transduction principle of the velocity meters,
principle of the flow also termed as anemometers is as follows:
rate meters is as Variable head meter (Pitot- static tube)
follows: Target flow meter
Variable head meters Turbine/propeller type meter
Variable area meters Ultrasonic flow meter
Variable head and Electromagnetic flow meter
variable area meters Hot wire/hot film anemometer
Constant head meter Laser Doppler anemometer

9
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(SECONDARY FLOW RATE METERS)
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow rate meters: Contd.
(i)Variable head meters Contd.
These meters essentially introduce an engineered constriction in the flow passage. The,
devices in general can be as termed obstruction type of flow meters.
The term ‘obstruction meter’ applies to the devices that act as obstacles placed in the
path of the flowing fluid, causing localized changes in the velocity. Concurrently with
the velocity change, there is a corresponding pressure change in the flow.
The main forms of restriction used in the flow are venturi tube, orifice plate and a
nozzle, which are shown in the figure.

Fig.: Obstruction type of flow meters namely, Venturi meter,

Orifice meter and nozzle flow meter. 10
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(SECONDARY FLOW RATE METERS)
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow rate meters: Contd.
(i)Variable head meters Contd.
Expression for rate of flow
If, the pressure, velocity and area of fluid stream at point 1, upstream of obstruction
are p1, V1 and A1 and at point 2 just downstream of the obstruction are p 2, V2 and A2.
Further, we assume the flow to be incompressible, i.e., its density does not vary in the
flow field.
Applying the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equation and further, assuming that
the losses in the fluid flow due to friction and eddying motions are accounted for by
the term coefficient of discharge Cd , then , the actual rate of discharge of fluid flow,
Qactual with usual notations is given by:

where, Δh is the differential pressure head, which is given by:

( p1 – p2 ) / (ρ g) = Δh
11
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(SECONDARY FLOW RATE METERS)
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow rate meters: Contd.
(ii)Variable area meter
A commonly used variable area flow meter, known as the
rotameter shown in the figure, consists of a vertically placed
tapered glass tube , in which tube area varies with height.
In this device, the flow enters at the bottom and causes the bob or
‘float’ (which has higher density than the fluid) to move upwards.
The position of the float in the tube is taken as an indication of
the flow rate. The expression for the flow rate is given by:

Fig.: A rotameter
where, ρf and ρff are the densities of the float and flowing fluid, respectively,
Vf is the volume of the float
At is the area of the tube at the float level = (A t – Af ) and
Cd is the coefficient of the discharge.
12
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(SECONDARY FLOW RATE METERS)
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow rate meters: Contd.
(iii)Variable head and variable area flow meters (Wiers)
Weirs are variable head, variable area flow meters used for measuring large volumes
of liquids in open channels. These devices operate on the principle that if a
restriction of a specified shape and form is placed in the path of the flow, a rise in the
upstream liquid level occurs which is a function of the rate of flow through the
restricted section.
The most commonly used weirs are the Rectangular, the Triangular or V-notch and
the Trapezoidal or Cipolleti weir have been shown in the figure. Further, the rate of
discharge Q is shown below the figure of each device.

Fig.: Measurement of rate of flow in open channels

13
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(SECONDARY FLOW RATE METERS)
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow rate meters: Contd.
(iv) Constant head flow meter
For very small flow rates or for
highly viscous flows the linear
resistance element flow meter (also
known as capillary flow meter) is
specially suitable and is shown in the
figure.
It is a constant head loss type of
flow meter and its working principle
is based on the well-known Hagen–
Poiseuille equation for laminar flow
(i.e., Re No. < 2200) in a tube, in
which, the flow rate Q, with usual
notations is as follows: Fig.: Linear resistance element
Q = [(π D4 ) / (128 μ L)] (p1 – p2) flow meter

14
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(VELOCITY METERS)
Contd.
(c) Secondary velocity meters: Contd.
(i) Variable head velocity meter (Pitot-Static tube)
A commonly used variable head velocity
measuring device is the Pitot-Static tube.
Figure shows a schematic diagram of the Pitot-
Static tube. It consists of two concentrically
arranged tubes bent at right angles.
The inner tube, also known as stagnation tube, is
open-ended and faces the incoming stream of fluid
and senses the stagnation pressure, pstag . The outer
static tube is closed at the nose of the tube. It
senses the static pressure, pstat from its sensing
holes.
The expression of velocity in Pitot –Static tube is
given by:
Fig.: A Pitot – Static tube

where ρ is the density of the fluid

15
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(VELOCITY METERS)
Contd.
(c) Secondary velocity meters: Contd.
(ii) Target flow meter
The drag force on the body becomes the measure of
the flow rate after suitable calibration.
The drag force Fd acting on the body immersed in a
flowing fluid is given by
Fd = 1/2Cd ρ gV 2 A
where Cd is the coefficient of drag
A is area of cross-section (in m2)
ρ is the fluid density (in kg/m3)
V is the fluid velocity (in m/s).
For a sufficiently high Reynolds number, the drag
coefficient is reasonably constant. Therefore, for a
given density, Fd is proportional to V2 and thus square
of volume flow rate. The drag force of the body can be
measured by one of the device commonly used in this Fig.: A target flow meter
type of meter i.e., a cantilever beam arrangement with
bonded strain gauges , as shown in the figure.
16
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(VELOCITY METERS)
Contd.
(c) Secondary velocity meters: Contd.
(iii) Turbine flow meter
A typical turbine flow meter with an electrical output suitable for measuring the flow
in tubes and pipes, has been shown in the figure..
In this device, the rotor motion, proportional to the flow rate, is sensed by means of a
permanent magnet, which is encased in the rotor body. Each time the rotating
magnet passes the pole of the pick-up coil, the change in permeability of the magnetic
circuit produces a voltage pulse at the output terminal.
These voltage pulses are counted by means of an electronic digital counter to give the
total flow. Further, the pulse rate at any time interval, is proportional to the speed of
the rotor and gives the velocity of flow in that interval

Fig.: A turbine flow meter

17
 TYPES OF FLOW METERS
(VELOCITY METERS)
Contd.
(c) Secondary velocity meters: Contd.
(iv) Vortex shedding flow meter
The vortex-shedding frequency of the bluff body is a measure of the average
flow velocity of the fluid flow. The fluid parameter which governs the operation
of the vortex-shedding flow meter is the non-dimensional number, Strouhal
number S which is defined as:
S = fs D/ V
where fs = vortex-shedding frequency
D = diameter or characteristic length of the bluff body
and V = average velocity of the flow
The measurement of the vortex-shedding
frequency is accomplished monitoring the
alternating strain signal from the strain
gauge shown in the figure.
The output of the flow meter in both cases
is electrical and can be suitably processed Fig.: A vortex shedding
to either indicate instantaneous flow or flow meter
totalized flow.
18
 CORIOLIS MASS FLOW METER
(CMF METER)
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow meters: Contd.
(v) Coriolis mass flow meter
Coriolis Mass Flow (CMF) meter, shown in the figure is inserted into the piping system of
the flowing fluid. The flow enters the double loop, double pipe arrangement with fixed
ends A and B. Both the pipes are vibrated with electromagnetic vibration exciter at its
natural frequency.
As soon as the fluid flow enters
the tubes, up flow end induces
inward loop vibratory motion,
while the down flow end creates
outward loop vibratory motion
due to generation of equal and
opposite, Coriolis forces, caused
by coriolis effect, at both ends. Fig.: Double tube type Coriolis mass flow meter
The vibration sensors are electromagnetic pick up coils, fitted at two ends C and D to
register the phase difference at two ends i.e., in one of the tubes with respect to the other
tube. This phase difference between the two ends of the tubes of the meter is directly
proportional to the mass flow rate.
19
 ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow meters: Contd.
(vi) Ultrasonic flow meter Contd.
The operating principle of this type of instrument is based on the apparent change in
the velocity of propagation of sound pressure pulses in a fluid with a change in velocity
of the fluid flow.
Single receiver-transmitter system ultrasonic flow meter:
Single receiver-transmitter system ultrasonic flow meter
has been shown in Fig.(i).
It can be shown that the travel time difference Δt = (t0 – t),
in this system is given by: Δt = lV / Vs 2
where t0 the transit time of the ultrasound pulse from
the transmitter to the receiver with zero flow
velocity
t is the transit time when the fluid is moving
with a velocity V,
Fig. (i) Single receiver
l is the distance between the transmitter and the transmitter system
receiver and Contd.
Vs the velocity of sound in the fluid
20
 ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow meters: Contd.
(vi) Ultrasonic flow meter Contd.
Twin receiver-transmitter system ultrasonic flow meter:
It is preferable to have an additional set of transmitter-receiver system type
of ultrasonic flow meter.[(Fig. (ii)] to determine the transit time against the
direction of flow.
If t1 is the transit time along the flow and t 2
the transit time against the flow, then, it can
be shown that the travel time difference Δt,
with usual notations, is given by:
Δt = 2 l V / Vs 2
Thus the output signal proportional to Δt is
linear in V for constant Vs. However, the
calibration constant is strongly dependent on Fig. (i) Twin receiver
Vs which depends on the temperature and transmitter system
pressure of the flow field. Contd.
21
 ULTRASONIC FLOW METER

(c) Secondary flow meters: Contd.

(vi) Ultrasonic flow meter
Oscillating loop receiver-transmitter system ultrasonic flow meter:
The oscillating loop receiver transmitter system, shown in
Fig. (iii), employs the frequency difference method for the
determination of fluid velocity.
In this system, in an oscillating loop, a pulse is emitted by
the transmitting transducer T1 (pulse generator) and is
received by the receiving transducer R 1 after time t1. This
pulse is amplified and instantaneously fed back to the
transmitting transducer for retransmission. This generates
a train of pulses in each path whose time period equals the
acoustical travel time.
If the repetition frequencies along and against the fluid Fig. (iii) Oscillating loop type
flow are f1 and f2 , then,
receiver transmitter
frequency difference or beat frequency , is given by:
system
Δf = ( f1 – f2 ) = 2 (V / l )
Thus the frequency difference is directly proportional to
V which affords a useful linear relationship Contd.
22
 ELETRO-MAGNETIC FLOW METER
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow meters: Contd.
(vii) Electro-magnetic flow meter: Contd.
Rate of flow may be determined, for electrically conducting fluids, by
measuring the emf induced across the fluid stream when it passes through
the magnetic field. This technique cannot be used for electrically non-
conducting fluids like gases.
The principle of operation of the unit is analogous
to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction for
solid conductors. The law states that whenever a
conductor cuts lines of magnetic field, an induced
emf is generated and the magnitude of this emf is
proportional to the rate at which these lines are cut
and the emf is perpendicular to the plane of
conductor and the magnetic field. The direction of Fig. (i) Fleming’s
the induced emf is given by the Fleming’s right Right hand
hand rule [Fig.(i)]. rule
Contd.
23
 ELETRO-MAGNETIC FLOW METER

(c) Secondary flow meters: Contd.

(vii) Electro-magnetic flow meter:
The electromagnetic flow meter [Fig. (ii)] consists of the following:
1. A permanent magnet or an electromagnet which may be either ac or dc around a
non conducting pipe.
2. Two electrodes placed at right angles to the magnetic field for picking up the
induced emf.
3. Fluid flow in the pipe which is at right angles to the plane of magnetic flux lines and
the induced emf direction which is along the line joining the electrodes.
Now for the conducting fluid flows,
the induced voltage E0 generated
according to Faraday’s law is :
E0 = Blv × 10–8 volt
where B = magnetic flux density
(in V-s/cm2)
l = length of the conduction (in cm)
v = velocity of the conductor (in cm/s) Fig. (ii) Electro-magnetic flow meter
24
 HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
(HWA)
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow meters: Contd.
(viii) Hot Wire Anemometer (HWA) Contd.
Hot wire anemometer also termed as
thermal anemometer, is a commonly
used device for measuring the mean
and fluctuating velocities in fluid flows.
The flow sensing element is a short
length of 5 μm diameter platinum–
tungsten wire welded between two
prongs of the probe and heated
electrically as a part of Wheatstone Fig.(a) : HWA bridge circuit and
bridge [Fig. (a)]. Fig.(b) : Calibration curve of HWA
When the probe is introduced in the fluid stream, it tends to get cooled by the
instantaneous velocity of flow and consequently there is a decrease in its
resistance, which is a function of change in the flow velocity. The calibration
curve of HWA , shown in [Fig. (b)] is highly non-linear.
Contd. 25
 HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER
(HWA)

(c) Secondary flow meters: Contd.

(viii) Hot Wire Anemometer (HWA)
The hot wire anemometer may be used to measure the velocity in two ways.
The first mode known as constant current method uses an electric circuit adjusted to feed
constant current to the hot wire. The resistance change, which is a measure of the heat
transfer rates , caused by flow velocity gives rise to the bridge output voltage E
The second mode of hot wire operation is termed as the constant resistance or constant
temperature method. In this the current in the hot wire sensor is continuously adjusted by
means of a suitable servo system to maintain the wire resistance and hence the wire
temperature at a constant value throughout the range of hot wire operation. The current
(or the voltage across the wire) is then a measure of the heat transfer rates and
consequently of the flow velocities.
The hot wire probe calibrated against the pitot static tube by putting both probes side-by-
side in a wind tunnel or any other controlled air stream. The calibration plot between E2
and V is obtained. The curve is extrapolated in the lower range to give the value of E 0 for zero
velocity. The calibration equation obtained for both constant current and constant resistance
modes of operations is generally of the form:

26
 LASER DOPPLER ANEMOMETER
(LDA)
Contd.
(c) Secondary flow meters: Contd.
(ix) Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA) Contd.
The Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA) is optical type of velocity meter. It employs
LASER (Light Amplification by the Simulated Emission of Radiation) beam in
place of the monochromatic light beam. This instrument measures the
instantaneous velocities of gases or liquids flowing in a transparent (usually glass)
channel.
The operating principle of this device is based on the Doppler shift in frequency of the
light scattered by an object moving relative to the radiating source.
The technique basically consists of focusing laser beams at the point in the fluid where
the velocity is to be measured. At this focal point, the laser light scattered from the
fluid or fluid particles entrained in the fluid is sensed by a photo-detector. Signal
processing of the photo-detector output yields the magnitude of Doppler frequency
shift which is directly proportional to the instantaneous velocity of the flow.
The one most commonly employed is the dual beam or the fringe mode. In this, the
laser source employed is usually the helium-neon laser of 5–15 mW power when the
measured flow is at a distance 10–20 cm. This laser operates at a wave length of 632.8
nm ( 5 ×1014 Hz) . Contd.
27
 LASER DOPPLER ANEMOMETER
(LDA)

(c) Secondary flow meters: Contd.

(ix) Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA)
In the dual beam mode shown in the Fig.
(a), the laser beam is split into two equal
parts by means of a beam splitter.
The two beams are focused at a point
where the velocity of the fluid flow is to
be measured. At the focal point,, an
interference fringe pattern that consists
of alternate regions of high and low
intensity [Fig. (b)].
The tiny tracer particles seeded in the
flow scatter light in the interference
region and cause a Doppler shift in the
frequency of the scattered light.
Doppler shift in frequency given by:
Fig.(a) : Typical layout of LDA and
Fig.(b) : Interference fringes in
probe volume A
28
 CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS
Contd.
Two commonly used calibration methods which are simple in operation have been
discussed. Further, they are not very expensive and are associated with high degree of
accuracy in the calibration procedure.
(i) Water displacement method for gas flow meters
The calibration test rig shown in the figure. It
consists of two concentric cylinders. The lower
upright cylinder is filled with either water or non-
volatile mineral oil. The upper cylinder which
contains the gas, used for testing the flow the
figure on the upright cylinder.
The massive mass of upper cylinder causing
downward force is controlled by means of pulley
and counter weights. The net downward force
pressurizes the trapped gas and pushes it to the
flow meter under test.
Due to the displacement of gas, the upper cylinder Fig.: Calibration rig for gas
moves slowly downward and its movement is
flow meters using water
recorded on the scale calibrated in the units of
volume. The measurement of time and volume displacement method
displaced gives the value of flow rate.
29
 CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS

(ii) ‘Catch and weigh’ method for liquid flow meters

The calibration flow loop, shown in the figure, is
connected to two catch tanks which are namely the
large tank called sump and the small measuring
tank, termed as catch and weigh tank.
The fluid is pumped from the sump and is fed to the
flow meter under test, by controlling is to a desired
value by means of control valves and flow diverter.
This way, the fluid flowing through the flow meter,
which is being calibrated gets diverted in the
measuring tank of known volume up to a marked
line. At this point, this known volume is compared
Fig.: Calibration rig for liquid
with the integrated volumetric quantity indicated
by the quantity type flow meter.
flow meters using ‘catch
In addition, the mass of fluid collected in the tank is and weigh’ method
indicated by the load cell.
The time taken in this observation is accurately
recorded, which gives both volume flow and mass
flow rates for calibrating rate type flow meters.
30