Subject Code:21GNH101J

Subject Name: Philosophy of Engineering

UNIT-II
 2
Unit -2

 Ontology - Reference Ontology and Application Ontology

 Suites of Ontology Modules
 Functions and Capabilities
 Engineering Application Ontology using Concept/Mind Mapping
 Product Life Cycle
 Commodities, Services and Infrastructure
 Product Life Cycle Ontology using Concept/Mind Mapping
 ONTOLOGY
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Ontology comes from two greek word i.e. “Onto” meaning “existence” and “Logia” meaning “Science”
Ontology, in simple words, is like a map or a framework that helps us understand and organize knowledge about the world.
It's a way of categorizing and defining things so that we can make sense of them and talk about them more clearly.
Imagine you have a big box of different fruits, and you want to sort them out. You might create categories like "citrus
fruits," "berries," and "tropical fruits" to help you organize them. These categories are like the ontology of fruits because
they define how you group and understand them.
In a broader sense, ontology is about defining the basic building blocks of reality and how they relate to each other. It's a
way of answering questions like "What exists?" and "How are things connected?" in a systematic and organized manner.
So, ontology is like a tool that helps us structure our understanding of the world.
Ontology has been classified into two parts
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1. Reference Ontology
2. Application ontology

1. Reference Ontology: In simple words, a reference ontology is like a foundational map for organizing and understanding information. It's a
set of standardized terms, categories, and relationships that help us describe and make sense of things in a structured way. This reference
ontology provides a basic structure that can be customized or expanded upon to create more detailed and specialized "maps" of information for
specific topics.

Example: Imagine you're building a big library, and you want to make sure everyone can find books easily. You decide to create a reference
catalog for the entire library. This catalog contains categories like "Fiction," "Non-fiction," "Science Fiction," "Mystery," and so on. It also has
standardized labels like "Title," "Author, "and "Publication Date, "
Reference Ontology: The reference catalog in this scenario is like a reference ontology. It's a basic system of organizing information that can
apply to any book in the library. Usually libraries uses the Dewey Decimal System. Each book is assigned a unique number based on its topic.
Example: When you type a website address like www.example.com, the ".com" part is like a reference
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ontology. It tells your computer that this website is a commercial one. There are other extensions like
".org" for organizations and ".edu" for educational institutions. This helps organize websites by their
type.

2. Application Ontology: When you create a special catalog just for the "Science Fiction" section,
you add specific labels like "Aliens," "Time Travel," and "Spaceships,“. This customized catalog is
like an application ontology. It's tailored to a specific area of knowledge, in this case, science fiction
books. It provides unique categories and labels that make it easier to organize and locate information
within that specific category of books.
Reference Ontology Vs Application 6

Ontology
Reference Ontology Application Ontology
 Broad and deep  Narrow and Shallow

 Designed according to strict ontological  Designed according to the viewpoint of an

principles. end-user in a particular domain

 It fits the needs of large community  Fits the needs of a specific community

 Can’t be derived from application  Can be derived from reference ontology

ontology
Mind Mapping:
7
A mind map is a tool for the brain that captures the thinking that goes on inside your head. Mind mapping
helps you think, collect knowledge, remember and create ideas. Most likely it will make you a better
thinker.

Mind maps can be created in many different ways, but they share the same basics:
1. Central Theme
2. Associations
3. Curved lines
4. Keywords
5. Proximity
6. Color and Images
1. Central theme: A central theme is placed in the centre of a blank page. This is the title, the subject, a 8
problem or just a thought. When thinking of something images automatically take form in your head. For
example the image of a “colorful bunch of balloons” when thinking of “birthday”.

Central theme and image

2. Associations: From the central theme associations radiate out. Associations directly from the central
theme are called first level associations. Then second level associations are created, third level and so
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on. The brain thinks by imagination and association. When associations are created, connections are
made. These connections are essential for remembering and thinking.

Cold drinks
Coke
3. Curved lines: Associations are often drawn as curved lines. They are curved rather than straight,
because the brain likes curves .
10

Cold drinks
Coke

Curved lines guide the eyes smoothly from one association to the next.
4. Keywords: Mind maps summarize information. Instead of sentences, ideally only single keywords
are used. A single word per association gives more freedom, creativity and clarity. 11

Keywords summarise and give clarity Sentences are difficult to read and only a very limited number
of associations can be made
5. Proximity: The length of a word ideally matches the length of a curved line. That causes 12
associated words to be in close proximity.

Coke
Cold drinks
Coke

Cold drinks
Words that are close are connected

Words that are far apart are disconnected

6. Associations: A mind map can have many first level associations, but the mind can only 13
grasp about a maximum of 7.

Cold drinks

Coke

A few associations give a clear view Too many associations create chaos
7. Color and Images: The use of color is important in the mind map. Research shows that people who 14
use color and images in their imagination, their remembering capability is better than those who don’t.

Cold drinks
Coke

Colors and Images

 Concept map
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A concept map is a diagram that shows the relationships between different ideas.
This helps to understand how they’re connected.
Every concept map — whether it’s simple or complex — is made up of two key
elements:
Concepts: These are typically represented by circles, ovals, or boxes and are
called “nodes.”
Relationships: These are represented by arrows that connect the concepts, and
the arrows often include a connecting word or verb (but they don’t have to).
These arrows are called “cross-links.”

Concept map example

 Purpose of Concept Map 16

1. Dig into topic detail: When creating a concept map, you start with an overall concept and then work to identify sub-
topics. That requires that you and your team really sink your teeth into the subject, rather than grasping the surface-level
information.
2. Organize your thoughts: If you and your team participate in a brainstorming session or workshop, you’re bound to end up
with a ton of ideas. That big jumble can be difficult to act on, and a concept map helps you make sense of them in a visual,
easy-to-understand way.
3. Remember important information: Studies have shown that visual learning produces better recall than auditory learning.
So, if you and your team need to work through a problem or understand a topic, a concept map will boost both
comprehension and retention.
4. Understand relationships: The emphasis on relationships is the biggest benefit of a concept map, as it exists to not only
show you ideas but how they relate to one another. This can help you and your team uncover connections that you
wouldn’t have identified on your own.
 Types of Concept Maps 17
1. Spider Map: This map gets its name because it looks a lot like a spider web. You’ll start with your core idea at the center,
and then branch outwards to subtopics in a radial pattern. Your subtopics can branch out into smaller subtopics, and so on and
so forth. It is normally used when we have single idea to build upon.

Concept Map
2. Flow chart: You’ve probably seen a flowchart before, but you might not have known that it was 18
actually a type of concept map. This concept map shows the steps of a process. Typically, the arrows
represent different choices that are made or actions that are taken. When we need to understand a process
or make a decision.

Flow chart
3. Hierarchy Map: A hierarchy map is a type of concept map that shows the order of something. For
example, think about your company’s organizational chart. That’s an example of a hierarchy map, as it 19
shows people’s roles and their levels of superiority. When you need to understand the elements of a system,
along with which elements are in the highest position and which are in the lowest position.

Hierarchy Map
4. System Map: A system map is undoubtedly the most complex of all of the types of concept maps, as it
shows all of the different parts of a concept and how they’re interrelated. Connecting lines can include a “+” 20
or a “-” to note positive or negative correlations. They often end up looking like webs, but they don’t
necessarily need to move outward from the center the way a spider map does.

 Positive correlation means that if one variable/component

increases, the other variable/component also increases.

 While negative correlation means if one variable

increases, the other variable decreases.
 Difference between mind map and concept map 21
S.No. Mind Map Concept Map

1. Mind maps have a central topic or idea and it Concept maps have a more structured and hierarchical
doesn’t have structured and hierarchical layout. layout.
2. Mind maps are primarily used for organizing Concept maps are used to represent complex
thoughts, and visually representing the relationships between concepts and ideas.
relationships between simple ideas.
3. They are often less structured and more flexible. They are more structured and less flexible.

4. Primarily used for brainstorming and personal Primarily used for educational and academic purposes.
organization.
 PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE 22
Product life cycle is an assumption that every product has to go through four stages i.e. Introduction of product into the
market, growth of the product, maturity of the product and decline of the product.
As the product spends more time in the market and it makes its way through the cycle, its sales increase. Each product’s
PLC is different in the length of scope and duration, and each product is at risk of not making it out of the introduction
phase. However, the company strategy should remain consistent throughout each of the phases.
Different phases are as follows:
1. Stage 1: Product development
2. Stage 2: Product growth
3. Stage 3: Product Maturity
4. Stage4: Product Decline
Stage 1: Product Development: The new product is introduced; this is when all of the research and
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development happens.
Stage 2: Product Growth: The product is more than an idea or a prototype. At this stage, the product is
manufactured, marketed, and released. Distribution increases, demand increases, and competition also
increases.
Stage 3: Product Maturity: During this stage, the product is widely available, and there are many
competitors in the marketplace. You market the product to different segments, but more spending on
advertising will have no impact on its demand.
Stage 4: Product Decline: The product is losing market share, or becoming obsolete. It is well past its point
of highest demand, and the demand decreases.
Additionally, the product life cycle affects the average selling price (ASP). The ASP is how much you generally sell your
products or services for. When a product has many competitors or it is in the decline stage of its PLC, the ASP will be
lower.
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE 24
The product life cycle of a car model like the "Ambassador" can be divided into several stages, each with its
own characteristics and challenges. The Ambassador, produced by Hindustan Motors in India, is a classic
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example of a car that has gone through various phases in its product life cycle.

Introduction:
 The Ambassador was first introduced in India in the 1950s, making it one of the earliest car models
in the country.
 During this stage, the product is launched, and sales are typically slow as customers become aware
of the new product.
Growth:
 In the 1960s and 1970s, the Ambassador experienced significant growth in sales and popularity.
 The car became synonymous with luxury and status in India, and its sales were relatively high.
Maturity: 26
 The Ambassador reached its maturity stage during the 1980s and 1990s.
 It had a well-established market share, and sales were steady.
 Competition from other car manufacturers began to increase.
Decline:
 The decline stage for the Ambassador started in the late 1990s and continued into the 2000s.
 Newer car models from both domestic and international manufacturers offered more advanced
features and designs, making the Ambassador less appealing to consumers.
 Sales declined significantly, and the model faced challenges in terms of technology, safety, and
emissions standards.
 Linear Product Life Cycle 27
So far, we have been discussing the typical PLC. It is linear and at each stage has material, labor, and resource inputs. It also
has waste outputs that can negatively affect the environment. Researchers assert that the introduction stage where design takes
place determines between 70 percent and 90 percent of the life cycle costs. At this stage, manufacturers can also remove excess
waste and continue to develop sustainable manufacturing practices.

Linear Product Life Cycle

 Closed Loop Product Life Cycle 28
A closed-loop cycle creates a truly full life cycle that takes your obsolete or
used products back into raw materials, not just assigning them to waste.
Although many of these closed-loop products are down cycled (converted into
lesser-quality materials), the products are still recycled and reused repeatedly.

Example- An example of this is Dell’s take-back program, which takes the

computers that it manufacturers and turns a majority of them into new
computers.

Closed Loop Product Life Cycle

Other companies separate out product components and sell them to their
partners on the commodities market, as raw materials, who then make them
into new products.
 Closed Product Life Cycle - Benefits 29

 Better for the environment.

 Does not affect performance or price.
 Fewer carbon emissions in manufacturing.
 As programs scale, they become cheaper and more effective.
 30

PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE

ONTOLOGIES
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Reference Ontology- Characteristics 32

 Conceptual clarity
 Extensibility
 Reusability
 Formal representation
 Standardization
 Domain coverage
 Modularity
 Community Involvement
 Documentation
 Versioning and Evolution