FREQUENCY-DOMAIN

ANALYSIS AND STABILITY

DETERMINATION
FREQUENCY-RESPONSE STUDIES
 In practice, the performance of a control system is more
realistically measured by its time-domain characteristics.
 The reason is that the performance of most control systems is
judged based on the time due to certain test signals.
 But, there are some systems which has input signal of
sinusoidal function.

 The frequency domain is also more convenient for

measurements of system sensitivity to noise and parameter
variations.
 the steady-state output of the system, y(t), will be a sinusoid
with the same frequency ω but possibly with different amplitude
and phase; that is,

 then the Laplace transforms of the input and the output are
related through

 For sinusoidal steady-state analysis, we replace s by jω, and the

last equation becomes

 By writing the function Y(jω) as

 with similar definitions for M(jω) and R(jω), leads to the
magnitude relation between the input and the output:

and the phase relation:

 Thus, for the input and output signals described on the

above eqns, respectively, the amplitude of the output
sinusoid is

 and the phase of the output is

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS
 the closed-loop transfer function is

 Under the sinusoidal steady state, s = jω,

 The magnitude of M(jω) is

 and the phase of M(jω) is

 FREQUENCY-DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS
 Specifications such as the maximum overshoot, damping ratio, and
the like used in the time domain can no longer be used directly in
the frequency domain. The following frequency-domain
specifications are often used in practice.
 Resonant Peak (Mr)
 The resonant peak Mr is the maximum value of
 Normally, a large Mr corresponds to a large maximum overshoot of the

step response. For most control systems, it is generally accepted in practice

that the desirable value of Mr should be between 1.1 and 1.5.

Resonant Frequency (ωr)

o The resonant frequency ωr, is the frequency at which the peak
resonance Mr occurs.
 Bandwidth BW
o The bandwidth BW is the frequency at which drops to 70.7% of,
down from, its zero frequency value.
o In general, the bandwidth of a control system gives indication on the
transient-response properties in the time domain. A large bandwidth
corresponds to a faster rise time, since higher-frequency signals are more
easily passed through the system.
 Resonant Peak and Resonant Frequency
 For the prototype second-order system, the resonant peak Mr, the resonant
frequency ωr and the bandwidth BW are all uniquely related to the
damping ratio ξ, and the natural undamped frequency ωn of the system.
 Consider the closed-loop transfer function of the prototype second-order
system
 At sinusoidal steady state, s = jω,

 by letting u = ω/ωn,

 The magnitude and phase of M(jω) are

and

The resonant frequency is determined by

 Therefore the value of U and ω,
and
Because frequency is a real quantity, is meaningful only for 2ξ < 1, or
ξ < 0.707.
The value of Mr for u and simplifying, we get

It is important to note that, for the prototype second-order system, Mr

is a function of damping ratio ξ only, and is a function of both ξ
and ωn.
 Bandwidth
 In accordance with the definition of bandwidth, we set the value of M(ju) to
.

 the bandwidth of the prototype second-order system is determined

 Therefore
 NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION:
 Nyquist criterion is a semigraphical method that determines the
stability of a closed System by investigating the properties of the
frequency-domain plot, the Nyquist plot, of the loop transfer
function G(s)H(s), or L{s).
 The Nyquist plot of L(s) is a plot of L (jω) in the polar coordinates
of lm[L(jω)] versus Re[L(jω)] as to varies from 0 to ∞.
 Let us consider that the closed-loop transfer function

 where G(s)H(s) can assume the following form

 Because the characteristic equation is obtained by setting the
denominator polynomial of M(s) to zero,

 In general, for a system with multiple number of loops, the

denominator of M(s) can be written as

 Loop transfer function zeros: zeros of L(s)

 Loop transfer function poles: poles of L(s)

 Closed-loop transfer function poles: zeros of 1 + L(s) = roots of the

characteristic equation
 poles of 1 + L(s) = poles of L(s).

 Stability Conditions
 Closed-Loop Stability: A system is said to be closed-loop stable, or
simply stable, if the poles of the closed-loop transfer function or the
zeros of 1 + L(s) are all in the left-half S-plane. Exceptions to the above
definitions are systems with poles or zeros intentionally placed at s = 0.
 Suppose that a continuous closed path Гs is arbitrarily chosen in the
s-plane, as shown in Fig, If Гs does not go through any poles of
∆(s), then the trajectory Г∆ mapped
by ∆(s) into the ∆(s) -plane is also a closed one, as shown in Fig.
below.

The direction of traverse of Г∆ can be either CW or CCW, that is, in

the same direction or the opposite direction as that of Гs, depending
on the function ∆(s).
“Let ∆(s) be a single-valued function that has a finite number of poles
in the s-plane. Suppose that an arbitrary closed path Гs is chosen in
the s-plane so that the path does not go through any one of the
poles or zeros of ∆(s); the corresponding Г∆ locus mapped in the
∆(s)-plane will encircle the origin as many times as the difference
between the number of zeros and poles of ∆(s) that are encircled by
the s-plane locus Гs.”
In equation form, the principle of the argument is stated as
N = Z-P, where N --number of encirclements of the
origin made by the ∆(s)-plane locus Г∆.
Z --number of zeros of ∆(s) encircled by the S-plane locus Гs in the
S-plane.
P--number of poles of ∆(s) encircled by the S -plane locus Гs in the
S-plane.
 Let us consider the function ∆(s) is of the form

 The function ∆(s) can be written as

 Because the poles of ∆(s) contribute to a negative phase, and zeros
contribute to a positive phase, the value of N depends only on the
difference between Z and P. For the case illustrated Z = 1 and P =
0.
Thus, N = Z - P = 1
o Which means that the ∆(s)-plane locus Г∆ should encircle the
origin once in the same direction as that of the s-plane locus Гs
o If there are N more zeros than poles of ∆(s) , which are encircled
by the s-plane locus Гs, in a prescribed direction, the ∆(s) -plane
locus will encircle the origin N times in the same direction as that
of Гs.
o Conversely, if N more poles than zeros are encircled by Гs in a
given direction, N will be negative, and the ∆(s)-plane locus must
encircle the origin N times in the opposite direction to that of Гs.
 Nyquist Criterion and the L(s) or the G(s)H(s) Plot
 In principle, once the Nyquist path is specified, the stability of a
closed-loop system can be determined by plotting the ∆(s)= 1 +L(s)
locus when S takes on values along the Nyquist path.

 Because the function L(s) is generally known, it would be simpler to

construct the L(s) plot that corresponds to the Nyquist path, and the
same conclusion on the stability of the closed-loop system can be
obtained by observing the behavior of the L(s) plot with respect to the
(-1, j0) point in the L(s)-plane.
 Nyquist criterion to the stability problem involves the following steps.

1. The Nyquist path Гs is defined in the s-plane,

2. The L(s) plot corresponding to the Nyquist path is constructed in the L(s)-
plane.

3. The value of N, the number of encirclement of the (-1, j0) point made by the
L(s) plot, is observed.

4. The Nyquist criterion follows from N = Z-P

That is, “for a closed-loop system to be stable, the L{s)plot must encircle the (-l,
j0) point as many times as the number of poles of L(s) that are in the right-
half s-plane, and the encirclement, if any, must be made in the clockwise
direction (if Гs is defined in the CCW sense)
 Example: Consider that a single-loop feedback control system has
the loop transfer function

 The stability of the closed-loop system can be conducted by investigating

whether the Nyquist plot of L(j ω)/K for ω = 0 to ∞ encloses the (-1, j0)
point.
1. Substitute s = jω in L(s).

2. Substituting ω = 0 in the last equation, we get the zero-frequency property

of L(j ω)

3. Substituting ω = ∞ , the property of the Nyquist plot at infinite frequency

is established.
 4. To find the intersect(s) of the Nyquist plot with the real axis, if any, we
rationalize L(jω)/K

5. To find the possible intersects on the real axis, we set the imaginary part of
L(jω)/K to zero. The result is

 The solutions of the last equation are ω = ∞ , which is known to be a

solution at L(jω)/K = 0, and
 Because ω is positive, the correct answer is ω= ±20 rad/sec.
Substituting this frequency
 Thus, we see that, if K is less than 240, the intersect of the L(jω)
locus on the real axis would be to the right of the critical point (-1,
j0); the latter is not enclosed, and the system is stable. If K = 240, the
Nyquist plot of L(jω) would intersect the real axis at the -1 point, and
the system would be marginally stable.
 Gain Margin (GM)
Gain Margin (GM) is one of the most frequently used
criteria for measuring relative stability of control systems.
 In the frequency domain, gain margin is used to indicate the
closeness of the intersection of the negative real axis made by the
Nyquist plot of L( jω) to the (-1, j0) point.
 Phase Crossover: A phase-crossover on the L(jω) plot is a point at
which the plot intersects the negative real axis.
 Phase-Crossover Frequency: The phase-crossover frequency ωp is
the frequency at the phase crossover, or where
L(jω) at ω= ωp is designated as |L(jωp)|. Then, the gain margin of
the closed-loop system that has L(s) as its loop transfer function is
defined as
we can draw the following conclusions about the gain margin

 The L(jω) plot does not intersect the negative real axis (no finite nonzero
phase crossover).

 The L(jω) plot intersects the negative real axis between (phase crossover lies
between) 0 and the 1 point.

 The L(jω) plot passes through (phase crossover is at) the (-1 , j0) point.

 The L(jω) plot encloses (phase crossover is to the left of) the (-1, j0) point.
 Gain margin is the amount of gain in decibels (dB) that can
be added to the loop closed-loop system becomes before the
closed-loop unstable.

 When the Nyquist plot does not intersect the negative real axis
at any finite nonzero frequency, the gain margin is infinite

in dB; this means that, theoretically, the value of the loop

gain can be increased to infinity before instability occurs.
 When the Nyquist plot of L(jω) passes through the (-1,

j0) point, the gain margin is 0 dB, which implies that

the loop gain can no longer be increased, as the

system is at the margin of instability.

 When the phase-crossover is to the left of the (-1, j0)

point, the phase margin is negative in dB, and the

loop gain must be reduced by the gain margin to

achieve stability.
 Phase Margin (PM)
 The gain margin is only a one-dimensional representation of
the relative stability of a closed-loop system.
 As the name implies, gain margin indicates system stability
with respect to the variation in loop gain only.
 To include the effect of phase shift on stability, we introduce
the phase margin,
Gain Crossover: The gain crossover is a point on the
L(jω) plot at which the magnitude of L(jω) is equal to 1.

Gain-Crossover Frequency: The gain-crossover

frequency, ωg, is the frequency of L(jω) at the gain
crossover. Or where |L(jωg)| = 1

The definition of phase margin is stated as:

Phase margin (PM) is defined as the angle in degrees
through which the L(jω) plot must be rotated about the
origin so that the gain crossover passes through the (-1,
j0).
 The analytical expression of the phase margin,

 Example
 As an illustrative example on gain and phase margins, consider that the
loop transfer function of a control system is

 The following results are obtained from the Nyquist plot:

 Gain crossover ωg =6.22rad/sec
 Phase crossover ωp = 15.88 rad/sec

 The magnitude of L(jωp) is 0.182. Thus, the gain margin is obtained from

 The phase of L(jωg) is 211.72°. Thus, the phase margin is obtained from
 STABILITY ANALYSIS WITH THE BODE PLOT
 The Bode plot of a transfer function is a very useful graphical tool for
the analysis and design of linear control systems in the frequency
domain.
 Advantages of the Bode Plot

1. In the absence of a computer, a Bode diagram can be sketched by

approximating the magnitude and phase with straight line segments.
2. Gain crossover, phase crossover, gain margin, and phase margin
are more easily determined on the Bode plot than from the Nyquist
plot.
3. For design purposes, the effects of adding controllers and their
parameters are more easily visualized on the Bode plot than on the
Nyquist plot.
The following observations can be made on system stability with respect
to the properties of the Bode plot:
1. The gain margin is positive and the system is stable if the magnitude
of L(jω) at the phase crossover is negative in dB. That is, the gain
margin is measured below the 0-dB-axis. If the gain margin is measured
above the 0-dB-axis, the gain margin is negative, and the system is
unstable.
2. The phase margin is positive and the system is stable if the phase of
L{jω) is greater than -180° at the gain crossover. That is, the phase
margin is measured above the -180°-axis. If the phase margin is
measured below the -180°-axis, the phase margin is negative, and the
system is unstable.
 Example
 Consider the loop transfer function given

 The Bode plot is shown below

 The gain crossover is the point where the magnitude curve intersects
the 0-dB axis. The gain crossover frequency ωg is 6.22 rad/sec. The
phase margin is measured at the gain crossover. The phase margin is
measured from the -180°-axis and is 31.72°. Because the phase margin
is measured above the -180°-axis, the phase margin is positive, and the
system is stable.
 The phase crossover is the point where the phase curve intersects the -
180°-axis. The phase crossover frequency is ωp = 15.88 rad/sec. The
gain margin is measured at the phase crossover and is 14.8 dB.
Because the gain margin is measured below the 0-dB-axis, the gain
margin is positive, and the system is stable.