INTRODUCTION TO

BIOMECHANICS
BME 525
2. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS AND
DYNAMICS IN BIOMECHANICS
DR. O.A. ADELEYE
 INTRODUCTION TO STATICS AND
DYNAMICS IN BIOMECHANICS
• This section reviews some of the main points from any
standard introductory mechanics (statics and dynamics)
course.
• A review of vector mathematics is followed by matrix coordinate
transformations
• Euler’s equations of motion
• Static Equilibrium
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
VECTOR MATHEMATICS
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
3-D DIRECTION COSINES
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
3-D DIRECTION COSINES
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
3-D DIRECTION COSINES
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
EULER ANGLES
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
EULER ANGLES
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
EULER ANGLES
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
EULER ANGLES
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
EULER ANGLES
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
MECHANICS OF THE BODY TISSUES
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE 1: ELBOW

Figure 1. (a) The figure shows the

forearm of a person holding a book.
The biceps exert a force FB to support
the weight of the forearm and the book.
The triceps are assumed to be relaxed.

(b) Here, you can view an

approximately equivalent mechanical
system with the pivot at the elbow joint
as seen in Example 1
 SOLUTION
• Calculate the force the biceps muscle must exert to hold the
forearm and its load as shown in Figure 1, and compare this force
with the weight of the forearm plus its load.

• The torques created by the weights are clockwise relative to the

pivot, while the torque created by the biceps is counterclockwise;
thus, the second condition for equilibrium (net F = 0) becomes

Note that sin θ = 1 for all forces, since θ = 90º for all forces. This
equation can easily be solved for FB in terms of known quantities,
yielding
 SOLUTION
• Entering the known values gives

• And
.

• Now, the combined weight of the arm and its load is

(6.50 kg)(9.80 m/s2) = 63.7 N,

• so that the ratio of the force exerted by the biceps to the total weight is

• This means that the biceps muscle is exerting a force 7.38 times the weight
supported
 EXAMPLE 2: ELBOW

Consider the arm shown in Fig. 2.

The elbow is flexed to a right angle
and an object is held in the hand. The
forces acting on the forearm are
shown in Fig. 2.1a, and the freebody
diagram of the forearm is shown on a
mechanical model in Fig. 2.1b. Fig. 2 Example 1
This model assumes that the biceps
is the major flexor and that the line
of action of the tension (line of pull)
in the biceps is vertical.
 SOLUTION
• Point O designates the axis of rotation of the elbow
joint, which is assumed to be fixed for practical
purposes.
• Point A is the attachment of the biceps muscle on
the radius,
• Point B is the center of gravity of the forearm, and
• Point C is a point on the forearm that lies along a
vertical line passing through the center of gravity
of the weight in the hand.
• W is the total weight of the forearm.
• is the magnitude of the force exerted by the biceps
on the radius, and Fig. 2.1 Forces
• is the magnitude of the reaction force at the elbow acting on the lower
joint. arm
 SOLUTION

• Solution: We have a parallel force system, and the unknowns are

the magnitudes and of the muscle and joint reaction forces.
Considering the rotational equilibrium of the forearm about the
elbow joint and assuming the (cw) direction is positive:

That is: (1)

• For the translational equilibrium of the forearm in the y direction:

That is: (2)

Then (3)
 SOLUTION

• For given values of geometric parameters a, b, and c, and weights

and , Eqs. (1) and (3) can be solved for the magnitudes of the
muscle and joint reaction forces.
• For example, assume that these parameters are given as follows: , ,
, , and . Then from Eqs. (1) and (3):
 EXAMPLE 3: ELBOW
• A 160-lb person is holding a 10-lb weight in his palm with the
elbow fixed at 908 flexion (Fig. 4.8, top). (a) What force must
the biceps generate to hold the forearm in static equilibrium?
(b) What force(s) does the forearm exert on the humerus?
 SOLUTION

• The Figure below shows the

free-body diagram of this
system. Due to the increased
number of unknowns,
Summing moments about the
elbow at point O, the
equilibrium equation can be
written as
SOLUTION CONT.
 EXAMPLE 4: SHOULDER

Consider a person strengthening the shoulder

muscles by means of dumbbell exercises.
Fig. 3 illustrates the position of the left arm
when the arm is fully abducted to horizontal.
The free-body diagram of the arm is shown in
Fig. 5 along with a mechanical model of the
arm.
Also in Fig. 4, the forces acting on the arm are
resolved into their rectangular components Fig. 3 The arm is abducted
to horizontal
along the horizontal and vertical directions.
 SOLUTION
Point O corresponds to the axis of rotation of the
shoulder joint,
Point A is where the deltoid muscle is attached to
the humerus,
Point B is the center of gravity of the entire arm,
and
Point C is the center of gravity of the dumbbell.
W is the weight of the arm, is the weight of the
dumbbell,
is the magnitude of the tension in the deltoid
muscle, and
is the magnitude of the joint reaction force at the Fig. 4 Forces acting on
shoulder. the arm and a
The resultant of the deltoid muscle force makes an mechanical model
angle with the horizontal.. representing the arm
 SOLUTION

• Determine the magnitude of the force exerted by the deltoid

muscle to hold the arm at the position shown.
• Also determine the magnitude and direction of the reaction force
at the shoulder joint in terms of specified parameters.
,,,
, , and .
 SOLUTION

• Solution: With respect to the coordinate frame, the muscle and

joint reaction forces have two components while the weights of the
arm and the dumbbell act in the negative direction.
• The components of the muscle force are:
EXAMPLE 5: LOAD CARRYING
POSTURE
Figure 4. This figure shows
that large forces are exerted
by the back muscles and
experienced in the vertebrae
when a person lifts with their
back, since these muscles
have small effective
perpendicular lever arms.
 EXAMPLE 5: LOAD CARRYING
POSTURE
• Consider the person lifting a heavy box with his back, shown
in Figure 4.
• (a) Calculate the magnitude of the force FB– in the back
muscles that is needed to support the upper body plus the box
and compare this with his weight. The mass of the upper body
is 55.0 kg and the mass of the box is 30.0 kg.
• (b) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force FV–
exerted by the vertebrae on the spine at the indicated pivot
point. Again, data in the figure may be taken to be accurate to
three significant figures
 SOLUTION

(a) The mass of the upper body is 55.0 kg

at 35cm from the pivot point and the
mass of the box is 30.0 kg at 50cm from the pivot point.

Using the perpendicular lever arms given in

the figure, the second condition for equilibrium
(net τ = 0) becomes

Solving for FB yields

FB = 4.20 × 103 N.
 SOLUTION

(b) More important in terms of its damage potential is the force on the
vertebrae FV. The first condition for equilibrium (net F = 0) can be used to find
its magnitude and direction. Using y for vertical and x for horizontal, the
condition for the net external forces along those axes to be zero
and

Starting with the vertical (y) components, this yields

Thus,

Yielding
2.87 × 103 N.
 SOLUTION
Similarly, for the horizontal (x) components,

yielding
3.67 × 103 N.

The magnitude of FV is given by the Pythagorean theorem:

4.66 × 103 N.
The direction of FV is

Therefore
38.0∘.
EXERCISE: STANDING ON THE TOE

A 75-kg man stands on his toes

by exerting an upward force
through the Achilles tendon, as in
Figure 5. (a) What is the force in
the Achilles tendon if he stands
on one foot? (b) Calculate the
force at the pivot of the simplified
lever system shown—that force is
representative of forces in the
ankle joint.
EXERCISE: THE MASSETER MUSCLE
IN THE JAW
Unlike most of the other
muscles in our bodies, the
masseter muscle in the jaw, as
illustrated in Figure 6, is
attached relatively far from the
joint, enabling large forces to be
exerted by the back teeth. (a)
Using the information in the
figure, calculate the force
exerted by the lower teeth on
the bullet. (b) Calculate the
force on the joint.
 EXERCISE: ERECTED
HEAD
Even when the head is held erect, as in
Figure 8, its center of mass is not
directly over the principal point of
support (the atlanto-occipital joint). The
muscles at the back of the neck should
therefore exert a force to keep the head
erect. That is why your head falls
forward when you fall asleep in the
class. (a) Calculate the force exerted by
these muscles using the information in
the figure. (b) What is the force exerted
by the pivot on the head?
Figure 8. The center of mass of the head lies
in front of its major point of support,
requiring muscle action to hold the head
erect. A simplified lever system is shown