Advantages of networking

Connectivity Data

and Communication

Sharing Hardware Sharing Internet Access Internet Access Sharing Data Security and Management Entertainment

The Disadvantages (Costs) of Networking

Network Hardware, Software and Setup Costs Hardware and Software Management and Administration Costs Undesirable Sharing Illegal or Undesirable Behavior Data Security Concerns

Applications of Networks
Resource Sharing
Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers) Software (application software)

Information Sharing
Easy

accessibility from anywhere (files, databases) Search Capability (WWW)

Communication
Email Message

broadcast

Remote computing Distributed processing

(GRID Computing)

Addresses

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

Physical Addresses

The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
The physical addresses have authority over the network (LAN or WAN). The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the network.

Physical Addresses (contd)

Physical addresses

Physical Addresses (contd)

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6byte) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

Logical Addresses

Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying physical networks.
Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment where different networks can have different address formats. A universal addressing system is needed in which host can be identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network.

Port Addresses

The IP and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel from a source to the destination host. The end object of Internet communication is a process communicating with another process. For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a method to label assigned to a process is called a port address. A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.

Specific Addresses

Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address.
E-mail address URL (Universal Resource Locator)

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (device)

Network

Interface Card (NIC) Repeater Hub Bridge Routers Switch

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.)

Network Interface Card (NIC) NIC provides the physical interface between computer and cabling. It prepares data, sends data, and controls the flow of data. It can also receive and translate data into bytes for the CPU to understand. The following factors should be taken into consideration when choosing a NIC:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

- Preparing data - Sending and controlling data - Configuration - Drivers - Compatibility - Performance

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Preparing Data

In the computer, data moves along buses in parallel, as on a four-lane interstate highway. But on a network cable, data travels in a single stream, as on a one lane highway. This difference can cause problems transmitting and receiving data, because the paths traveled are not the same. ItistheNICsjobtotranslatethedatafromthe computer into signals that can flow easily along the cable. It does this by translating digital signals into electrical signals (and in the case of fiber-optic NICs, to optical signals).

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Sending and Controlling Data

For two computers to send and receive data, the cards must agree on several things. These include the following: - The maximum size of the data frames - The amount of data sent before giving confirmation - The time needed between transmissions - The amount of time needed to wait before sending confirmation - The amount of data a card can hold - The speed at which data transmits In order to successfully send data on the network, you need to make sure the network cards are of the same type and they are connected to the same piece of cable.

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Configuration

TheNICsconfigurationincludesthingslikea manufacturershardwareaddress,IRQ address, Base I/O port address, and base memory address. Some may also use DMA channels to offer better performance. Each card must have a unique hardware address. If two cards have the same hardware addresses, neither one of them will be able to communicate.

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Drivers

For

the computer to use the network interface card, it is very important to install the proper device drivers. These drivers operate in the Media Access Control sublayer of the Data Link layer of the OSI model.

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Compatibility

When

choosing a NIC, use one that fits the bus type of your PC. If you have more than one type of bus in your PC (for example, a combination ISA/PCI), use an NIC that fits into the fastest type (the PCI, in this case). This is especially important in servers, as the NIC can very quickly become a bottleneckifthisguidelineisntfollowed.

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Performance

The

most important goal of the network adapter card is to optimize network performance and minimize the amount of time needed to transfer data packets across the network.

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Repeaters

Repeaters are very simple devices. They allow a cabling system to extend beyond its maximum allowed length by amplifying the network voltages so they travel farther.

Repeaters can only be used to regenerate signals between similar network segments. For example, we can extend an Ethernet 10Base2 network to 400 meterswitharepeater.ButcantconnectanEthernetandToken Ring network together with one. The main advantage to repeaters is that, they not just amplify signals they regenerate data to remove noise which is not done by amplifiers

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Repeaters

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Hubs

Hubs

are devices used to link several computers together. They repeat any signal that comes in on one port and copy it to the other ports (a process that is also called broadcasting).

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Hubs

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Bridges

They join similar topologies and are used to divide network segments. For example, with 200 people on one Ethernet segment, the performance will be mediocre, because of the design of Ethernet and the number of workstations that are fighting to transmit. If you divide the segment into two segments of 100 workstations each, the traffic will be much lower on either side and performance will increase. If it is aware of the destination address, it is able to forward packets; otherwise a bridge will forward the packets to all segments. They are more intelligent than repeaters but are unable to move data across multiple networks simultaneously. Themaindisadvantagetobridgesisthattheycantconnect dissimilar network types or perform intelligent path selection. For that function, you would need a router.

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Bridges

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Routers

Routers are highly intelligent devices that connect multiple network types and determine the best path for sending data. The advantage of using a router over a bridge is that routers can determine the best path that data can take to get to its destination. Like bridges, they can segment large networks and can filter out noise. However, they are slower than bridges because they are more intelligent devices; as such, they analyze every packet, causing packet-forwarding delays. Because of this intelligence, they are also more expensive. Routers are normally used to connect one LAN to another. Typically, when a WAN is set up, there will be at least two routers used.

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Routers

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Switch

A network switch is a computer networking device that connects network segments. Low-end network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch contains more "intelligence" (and a slightly higher price tag) than a network hub. Network switches are capable of inspecting data packets as they are received, determining the source and destination device of that packet, and forwarding it appropriately. By delivering each message only to the connected device it was intended for, a network switch conserves network bandwidth and offers generally better performance than a hub. A vital difference between a hub and a switch is that all the nodes connected to a hub share the bandwidth among themselves, while a device connected to a switch port has the full bandwidth all to itself. For example, if 10 nodes are communicating using a hub on a 10-Mbps network, then each node may only get a portion of the 10 Mbps if other nodes on the hub want to communicate as well. . But with a switch, each node could possibly communicate at the full 10 Mbps.

Hardware, Software and Networks Peripherals (cont.) Switch

Access Control Methods

primary access control methods exist for computers to communicate with each other over the network
Token based access Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

Token based access

Used in bus and ring network topologies (token ring) Each computer in the network can only send its data if it has the token. This prevents collisions that occur when data is sent at the same time over the network The token is a special pattern of bits/bit in a frame that is directly detectible by each node in the network A computer may only transmit information if it is in possession of the token The message is sent to all other computers in the network

TypesofLANs
ThethreemostpopulartypesofLANs

are:
Token ring Ethernet FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

Operation of token ring

As an example, suppose node # 1 wants to send information to node # 4 over the network Initially, an empty frame (network packet) circulates in the network

1 6 2 3 5 4

When node # 1 receives the empty frame, it inserts a token in the token bit part of theframe.Thisoperationmayjustbeaninsertionofa1bit The node then inserts the message it wants to send as well as the address of the receiving node in the frame The frame is then successively received and examined by each node in the network. First it is sent to node #2. Node #2 examines the frame and compares the address in the frame to its own address. Since addresses do not match, it passes the frame onto node #3, which does the same thing When the frame is received by node #4, the address of the node matches the destination address within the frame. The node copies the message and changes thetokenbitintheframeto0 The frame is then sent over to node #5. This node also compares addresses and sends it to node #6 which does the same procedure When node #1 receives the frame, it examines the token bit and recognizes that it hasbeenchangedto.0Node 1#then concludes that the message has been received by the intended node: node #4. Node #1 then empties the frame and releases the empty frame back into the network for circulation

Letsseeananimation of the token ring

35

CSMA/CD

Usually used in a bus topology Used in Ethernet LANs Unlike the token ring, all nodes can send whenever they have data to transmit Whenanodewantstotransmitinformation,itfirstlistenstothe network. If no one is transmitting over the network, the node begins transmission It is however possible for two nodes to transmit simultaneously thinking that the network is clear When two nodes transmit at the same time, a collision occurs The first station to detect the collision sends a jam signal into the network Both nodes back off, wait for a random period of time and then retransmit

CSMA/CD

C
Collision

Ethernet

First network to provide CSMA/CD Developed in 1976 by Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) in cooperation with DEC and Intel Is a fast and reliable network solution One of the most widely implemented LAN standards Can provide speeds in the range of 10Mbps- 10 Gbps Used with a bus or star topology

Types of Ethernet LANs

10Base-T Operates at 10 Mbps IEEE 802.3 standard Fast Ethernet (100Base-T) Operates at 100 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet Operates at 1 Gbps Uses fiber optic cable 10 Gbps Ethernet Latest development of ethernet Uses fiber optic cable Developed to meet the increasing bandwidth needs of the LAN market Wireless Ethernet IEEE 802.11 standard Operates at around 2.4 Gbps

Fiber-Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

Fiber-Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) provides a standard for data transmission in a local area network that can extend in range up to 200 kilometers (124 miles). The FDDI protocol uses as its basis the token ring protocol. In addition to covering large geographical areas, FDDI local area networks can support thousands of users. As a standard underlying medium it uses optical fiber (though it can use copper cable, in which case one can refer to CDDI).

Fiber-Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

An FDDI network contains two token rings, one for possible backup in case the primary ring fails.

FDDI has a larger maximum-frame size than standard 100 Mbit/s ethernet, allowing better throughput.

Four Steps to Networking

Communicating across a link Connecting together multiple links (internetworking) Finding and routing data to nodes on internetwork Matching application requirements

A First Step
Creating

a link between nodes Link: path followed by bits

any device connected to a link

Types of Links
Point-to-Point Multiple Access

Packet Transmission Modes

Unicast

Transmission to single specific receiver Transmission to all network nodes

Broadcast

Multicast

Transmission to specific subset of nodes

Anycast

Second Step: Internet[work]

A collection of interconnected networks Host: network endpoints (computer, PDA,lightswitch,)

Internet[work]

Router: node that connects networks

Challenge
Many

differences between networks

Address formats Performance bandwidth/latency Packet size Loss rate/pattern/handling Routing

to translate between various network technologies

Third Step: How To Find Nodes?

Internet Computer 1 Computer 2

Naming

Humans use readable host names

E.g. www.cmu.edu Globally unique (can correspond to multiple hosts) E.g. DNS translates name to IP Address (e.g. 128.2.11.43) Address reflects location in network

Naming system translates to physical address

Domain Name System

Whats the IP address for www.cmu.edu?

It is 128.2.11.43
Computer 1 Local DNS Server

DNS server address manually configured into OS

Packet Routing/Delivery

Each network technology has different local delivery methods Address resolution provides delivery information within network

E.g., ARP maps IP addresses to MAC addresses Local, works only on a particular network

Routing protocol provides path through an internetwork

Network:Address Resolution Protocol

Ethernet Unicast: Yes, it is 08-00-2c-19-dc-45 Ethernet

Internetwork: Datagram Routing

R R R R

H
R R

H: Hosts
R: Routers

Routing
Forwarding

tables at each router populated by routing protocols. Original Internet: manually updated Routing protocols update tables based oncost
Exchange tables with neighbors or everyone Use neighbor leading to shortest path

Fourth Step: Application Demands

Corruption Lost packets

Flow

and congestion control Fragmentation In-order delivery Etc

What if the Data gets Corrupted?

Internet

Solution: Add a checksum

0,9 9

6,7,8 21

4,5 7

1,2,3 6

What if Network is Overloaded?

Solution: Buffering and Congestion Control Short bursts: buffer What if buffer overflows?

Packets dropped Sender adjusts rate until load = resources

1-15-00

Calledcongestioncontrol
57

What if the Data gets Lost?

Internet

Solution: Timeout and Retransmit GET index.html Internet GET index.html

GET index.html

1-15-00

58

WhatiftheDataDoesntFit?
Problem: Packet size

On Ethernet, max IP packet is 1.5kbytes Typical web page is 10kbytes

Solution: Fragment data across packets

ml

x.ht

inde

GET
GET index.html

1-15-00

59

What if the Data is Out of Order?

GET x.htindeml

Solution: Add Sequence Numbers

ml 4

inde 2

x.ht 3

GET 1
GET index.html

1-15-00

60