History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist 1102)

UNIT THREE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN

ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE
THIRTEENTH CENTURY
 3.1 Emergence of States
1. Factors for the emergence of state
 The beginning of sedentary agriculture.
 Trade : facilitated the development of state
 Religion: played prominent role in maintaining the
social and religious affairs of their people
 State
 Refers to an autonomous political unit having
population, defined territory, sovereignty and
government with the power to decree and enforce laws.
State was the outcome of regular cultural process.
 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa
where early state formation took place.
 3.2 Ancient States in Ethiopia and the Horn
North and North East
Punt
 Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings,
accompanied by vivid paintings that describes series of naval
expeditions
 Pharaoh Sahure- sent expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and
electrum
Pharaoh Asosi- took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt
Queen Hatshepsut – sent ships under Nubian Captain Nehasi via
Wadi-Tumilat.
 The expedition welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu.
 The expedition was able to return collecting frank incense, cinnamon,
sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard
and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes,
people etc.
 Cont…

Export items from Punt to Egypt

Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and
medicinal plants
Import items from Egypt to Punt
axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets,
necklaces, beads ,trinkets
 Hatshepsut presented the ritual importance of
◦ Amun ---- god
◦ Khebis of the Netjeru-- divine or ghosts land
 There is no clear evidence for the exact location of punt but
it is suggested that it probably stretched from Swakim or
Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape
Guardafui.
 Cont…

Da’amat
 The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the south of
Aksum.
 Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth
century BC. The followings are familiarized with Da’amat
kingdom.
◦ Mukarib.- politico- religious title
◦ Almouqah -principal god
◦ Astarr - Venus god,
◦ Na’uran- light god,
◦ Shamsi- sun god
◦ Sin - moon god
The center of the kingdom was Yeha.
 Cont…
1. Yeha:
Located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and oldest of these
centers.
It probably emerged around 1, 000 BC
Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry
are still standing. Eg. The Great Temple of Yeha
2. Hawulti Melazo
Situated to southeast of Aksum, stone tablets are inscribed in
rectangular temple
3. Addi-Seglemeni
Located at 10kms southwest of Aksum.
4. There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi
Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe,
 Cont…
The Aksumite State
 The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
 Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to the
Western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the
west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and possibly as far south
as northern parts of Shewa.
 According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea:
◦ Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major port of Aksum.
◦ The document also mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like
Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts
like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca.
◦ The major items of export - ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and
spices, gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells ,
curiosity animals like apes.
◦ Zoscales - king of Aksum, used to speak the Greek language, the Lingua
Franca of Greco-Roman world.
◦ Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia
Minor).
 Cont…
 Christian Topography also tells some information about Aksum

Written by Cosmas Indicopleustes

Describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas.
Mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant
region called Sasu rich in cattle
Practice in silent trade.
 Aksumite kings like Gadarat, Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba,
Ezana, Ousanas II had extensive contacts with the outside
world notably with the South Arabia.
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e.
Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time as
recorded by a writer, Mani.
 Aksum was sufficient sources of timber for ship building
 Continues…..
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of
Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but the local prince
Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar
and Nagran
 Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha
as governor of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D.
 Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-
48) who built a church at Zur Amba in Gayint.
 Cont…
o Decline of Aksumite Empire
a. Internal factor.
 Environmental degradation
 Plague infestation
 Rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the
Aksumite state
b. External factor
 The destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around
702
Cont…
 Achievements
◦ Indigenous script and calendar
◦ Art and architecture which greatly influenced the post
Aksumite periods. The Aksumite obelisks and other
church buildings (such as Debre Damo) are best
examples
◦ Music (the hymns of St. Yared)
◦ Urbanization
◦ Administrative and governance system
◦ Agricultural system including irrigation etc.
 Cont…
Zagwe Dynasty
 Founded as the Aksumite center shifted southwards to Kubar, rural
highland of the Agaw.
 Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the
last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
 Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos,
Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc.
 The Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from c. 1150 to 1270,
however.
 The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag and
Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 The territory extended to northern Shewa in the south, the Lake Tana
region and the northern part of Gojjam in the west.
 Exported items included slaves, ivory and rare spices.
 Continues……..
 Imported items: cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels,
drags and newly minted coins.
 The Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's art,
architecture, paintings and the translation works from
Arabic into Ge'ez, well developed as an extension of the
Aksumite civilization
 The excavation of numbers of churches from bed rock is its
best achievement
 The rock-hewn churches can be classified in to three types:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, similar with natural
cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: are with detailed interior decoration and
partial decoration outside.
 Cont….
• They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock.
Their roofs or walls are still attached to the rock, eg. Bete
Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete
Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the interior and
exterior parts.
◦ They are completely separated (carved out) from
surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete
Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.
 Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is
said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross.
 Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem to avoid
difficulties of Ethiopian Christians encountered in their
 Cont…
 The Downfall of Zagwe Dynasty
a. Problems of royal succession
b. Oppositions from groups claiming descent from the
ancient rulers of Aksum.
 Based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba,
Solomonic rulers claimed the Zagwe rulers as
“illegitimate”
 Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent
from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his
forces defeated the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek at a
battle in Gaynt and proclaimed the “restoration” of
“Solomonic” Dynasty
 Cont…
 East, Central, Southern, and Western States
A. Bizamo:
 Located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the present
districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area.
 It was founded in the eighth century and had early connections with Damot.
B. Damot:
 Expanded its territories into most of the lands the south of Abay and north of
Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.
C. Enarya:
 A kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.
 The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).
 the king (Hinnare- Tato)
 The real power rested with Mikretcho (council)
 Awa-rasha (king's spokesperson)
 Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
 The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.
 Cont…
D. Gafat:
Lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot on the south western periphery.
It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population
related to Harari and the Gurage.
Practitioners of their own indigenous religion.
paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom
Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan names.
The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of
Awalamo.
 Cont….
 Muslim Sultanates
A. Shewa:
 Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who set up the Makhzumite Sultanate
in 896 A. D
B. Fatagar:
 Founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the 11 th century

C. Dawaro
 located between upper waters of Awash and Wabi- Shebelle extending
to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast.
 Valuable information on Dawaro by an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah
el-umari.
 Dawaro had a currency called hakuna

D. Bali:
 It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and
extended southwards to the Gannale Dirre River.
 Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth
 It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
 E. Ifat
It was established by Umar Walasma, who claimed
descent t from Hashamite clan
The sultanate was fertile and well watered.
Inhabitants earned from wheat, sorghum, chat, millet
and teff, and animal husbandry.
Others: Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro),
Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise,
Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah
(West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim
 3.3 External Contacts
A. Egypt - introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new
pattern of relation between the region
B. Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.- common
commercial interest in the Red Sea area against their rival Persians
C. South Arabian Kingdoms
The Legend of Prester John
 The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war
fought over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the
Muslims of the Middle East was in favor of the latter
 The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not
known to Europe for over a century.
 Rich and powerful Christian ruler in middle of the 12th century
 The Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the
land of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the
Red Sea and the Indian sub-continent was the Ethiopian Christian
 3.4 Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
 The main base of ancient states' economy in highland areas was
plough agriculture.
 The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.
 Communal right to land is a group right.
 Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of the
families and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in the area
over long periods.
◦ It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law.
 The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
 Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce.
 The tribute collected by bale-gults,
 Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult
Con….
B. Handicraft
 Metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry, basketry
 The artisans were mostly despised and marginalized.
C. Trade
 Internal and international trade.

Generally, the above discussed states have numerous socio-cultural

Achievements
A. Architecture
 Monuments and buildings of religious and secular spaces
 There were totally 58 steles in and around Aksum .The longest one of these
stele measures 33meters heights (the first in the world) and represents 14 -
storied building. It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a
crescent (half moon) at the top.
 The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was successfully
erected represents 9 -storied building
 The third longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied
 Continues…
 The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest
architecture of artistic achievements of the Christian world
B. Writing System
 Sabean language had an alphabet with paleographical
writing from left to right and right to left alternatively.
 The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date
to the ninth century BC.
 By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad
(26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters
identical to the first-order forms of modern vocalized
alphabet.
 Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense
contribution to the development of literature, art and the
writing of history.
 C. Calendar

1. Oromo calendar
 Has been based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction
with seven or eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa
(guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning star).
 There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year.
 1978-86 by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have to develop
Oromo calendar
2. The Sidama calendar
 Rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of
which are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29
days.
 The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and
Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks.
 Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.
3. Ethiopic solar calendar
 Has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years)
Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month.
 Cont…
4. The Muslim (Islamic) calendar
 A lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or
355 days.
 It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed
and his followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and
established the first Muslim community (ummah).
5. Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta,
Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.
D. Numerals
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning
of fourth century AD.
 Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew,
Arabic and Greek numerals


#End of the Unit#