7.

Acids
Page: 63
Objective
• Acids and bases in every day life
• Definition
• Strong and weak acids and bases

• pH and indicators

• Reaction of Acids with

1. Metals
2. Metal Oxides
3. Metal Hydroxides
4. Carbonates

• Neutralisation
• Titration

• Theories of Acids & Bases

Arrhenius
Bronsted-Lowry
Lewis
 1. What do you think is the pH level of
(Tehran or your Home country) tap water?

2. The pH of a swimming pool must be

checked periodically. Why?

3. Is it important for Lakes &

Rivers to maintain a certain
pH?
 Introduction
• Organisms are often very sensitive to the effect of acids
and bases in their environment.

• They need to maintain a stable internal pH in order to

survive—even in the event of environmental changes.

• Many naturally occurring biological, geological, and

man-made chemicals are capable of stabilizing the
environment’s pH.

• This may allow organisms to better survive in diverse

environments found throughout the earth.
 Introduction Cont.
• Acids and bases are a way of classifying
compounds based upon what happens to
them when you place them in water.

• An acid is a substance that yields an excess of

hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.

• A base is a substance that yields an excess of

hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.
Definitions of Acids and Bases
• An acid is a substance that breaks into
ions in an aqueous solution.

• A Base (is a substance that breaks into

ions in an aqueous solution.

• Note: aqueous solution is any solution where

is the solvent.
Acids
Acid
You know that you must eat enough protein …….
Proteins are polymers of amino acids
You probably
know that
DNA has a
double
helix
structure
but you
don't know
whats in it?
DNA stands for
deoxyribose
nucleic acid
 Acids

• Have more hydrogen ion

• Produce H+ (as H3O+) ions in water (the hydronium ion is
a hydrogen ion attached to a water molecule)
• Have sour taste
• Sting when touched
• Are corrosive to skin
• Electrolyte
 Acid Nomenclature Review

No Oxygen

w/Oxygen

An easy way to remember which goes with which…

“In the cafeteria, you ATE something ICky”
 Acid Nomenclature Review

• HBr (aq) Þ hydrobromic acid

• H2CO3 Þ carbonic acid

• H2SO3 Þ sulfurous acid

 Name ‘Em!

• HI (aq)
• HCl (aq)
• H2SO3
• HNO3
• HIO4
 Base

• Have Hydroxide ion

• Have Bitter taste
• Are slippery
• Electrolyte
• React with fats to produce soap
 Some Common Bases

NaOH sodium hydroxide lye

KOH potassium hydroxide liquid soap

Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxidestabilizer for plastics

Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide “MOM” Milk of magnesia

Al(OH)3 aluminum hydroxide Maalox (antacid)

Acid-base indicators

Indicators = substances (like natural dyes) that change colors in

acidic or basic (alkaline) solutions

Examples:

❖ Litmus

❖ Anthocyanins Anthos = flower; Cyan = blue

➢ Red cabbage

➢ Cranberries

➢ Radishes
 Anthocyanins give many fruits and
flowers their stunning color and
acid-base behavior.

Image available at P. Kelter, J. Carr and A. Scott, “Chemistry: A World of Choices.”

Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1999. (p. 288)
 Acidic soil Alkaline soil

Image available at C. Baird and W. Gloffke, “Chemistry In Your Life.” New York: Freeman,
2003. (p. 437)
 Indicators

In chemistry, an indicator is defined as a

substance that undergoes distinct observable
change when the conditions of its solution
change.
Litmus is the most commonly used indicator in
the laboratory.

Litmus is a water soluble mixture of different

dyes extracted from lichens. It is often
absorbed onto filter paper to produce one of
the oldest forms of pH indicator, used to test
materials for acidity.
pH meter
Accurate
pH scale

pH stands for "power of hydrogen". It has also

been suggested that the "p" stands for the
German Potenz (meaning “power”). Another
suggestion is that the "p" stands for the Latin
terms pondus hydrogenii (quantity of hydrogen),
potentia hydrogenii (capacity of hydrogen), or
potential hydrogen.
The pH scale is a way of
expressing the strength of acids
and bases. Instead of using very
small numbers, we just use the
NEGATIVE power of 10 on the
Molarity of the H+ (or OH-) ion.

Under 7 = acid
7 = neutral
Over 7 = base
 The pH Scale
➢ The pH scale is a numeric scale that is used as a measure of
acidity or basicity of solutions.

➢ Mathematically, pH is the negative logarithm (base 10) of [H3O+]

pH = - log [H3O+]

Recall: At 25 0C, Kw = 1.0 x 10-14. What is the pH of pure water

at 25 0C?
Since [H3O+] = 1.0 x 10-7 M in neutral solutions like pure H2O:

pH = - log [H3O+] = - log (1.0 x 10-7) = - (-7.00)

pH = 7.00 (In neutral solutions and in pure H2O)

 Relationship between [H+] and [OH-]

➢ In most aqueous solutions, [H3O+] and [OH-] are not equal.

➢ What happens to [OH-] when [H3O+] is increased? Decreased?
Since [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14 = Kw at 25 0C:

[H3O+], [OH-] must decrease so their product equals

1.0 x 10-14
Thus, when [H3O+] is very high, [OH-] is very low, and vice versa.

➢ In acidic solution, [H3O+] > [OH-]

➢ In neutral solution, [H3O+] = [OH-]

➢ In basic solution, [H3O+] < [OH-]

 Calculating the pH

pH = - log [H+]
(Remember that the [ ] mean Molarity)

Example: If [H+] = 1 X 10-10

pH = - log 1 X 10-10
pH = - (- 10)
pH = 10
Example: If [H+] = 1.8 X 10-5
pH = - log 1.8 X 10-5
pH = - (- 4.74)
pH = 4.74
 Try These!
Find the pH of these:
1) A 0.15 M solution
of Hydrochloric
acid
2) A 3.00 X 10-7 M
solution of Nitric
acid
 pH calculations – Solving for H+
If the pH of Coke is 3.12, [H+] = ???
Because pH = - log [H+] then
- pH = log [H+]
Take antilog (10x) of both
sides and get

10 -pH
= [H ] +

[H+] = 10-3.12 = 7.6 x 10-4 M

*** to find antilog on your calculator, look for “Shift” or “2 nd
function” and then the log button
pH calculations – Solving for H+
• A solution has a pH of 8.5. What is the
Molarity of hydrogen ions in the solution?

pH = - log [H+]
8.5 = - log [H+]
-8.5 = log [H+]
Antilog -8.5 = antilog (log [H+])
10-8.5 = [H+]
3.16 X 10-9 = [H+]
HONORS ONLY!

More
More About
About Water
Water
H2O can function as both an ACID and a BASE.
In pure water there can be AUTOIONIZATION

Equilibrium constant for water = Kw

Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.00 x 10-14 at 25 oC
HONORS ONLY!
More About Water
Autoionization

Kw = [H3O ] [OH ] = 1.00 x 10

+ - -14
at 25 C
o

In a neutral solution [H3O+] = [OH-]

so Kw = [H3O+]2 = [OH-]2
and so [H3O+] = [OH-] = 1.00 x 10-7 M
 pOH
• Since acids and bases are
opposites, pH and pOH are
opposites!
• pOH does not really exist, but it is
useful for changing bases to pH.
• pOH looks at the perspective of a
base
pOH = - log [OH-]
Since pH and pOH are on opposite
ends,
pH + pOH = 14
pH [H+] [OH-] pOH
 [H3O ], [OH ] and pH
+ -

What is the pH of the 0.0010 M

NaOH solution?
[OH-] = 0.0010 (or 1.0 X 10-3 M)
pOH = - log 0.0010
pOH = 3
pH = 14 – 3 = 11

OR Kw = [H3O+] [OH-]
[H3O+] = 1.0 x 10-11 M
pH = - log (1.0 x 10-11) = 11.00
 Relationship between pH and [H3O+]

Image available at http://www.kmacgill.com/documents/pH_scale.gif

Notes: (1) The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution.
(2) For every factor of ten change in [H3O+], pH changes by
one unit.
 pH and pOH

pH = - log [H3O+] pOH = - log [OH-]

➢ Since [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14 = Kw at 25 0C, it follows that

pH + pOH = 14.00 at 25 0C
 pH scale (cont.)

Less than 7 = Acidic

0-1 Highly acidic; highly corrosive
5-6 Weakly acidic

pH 7 = Neutral
Greater than 7 = Basic
8-9 Weakly basic
13-14 Strongly basic; highly corrosive
 Explaining the difference in properties of acids and bases

ACIDS = substances that produce H3O+ (H+ bonded to H2O, thus simplified as
H+) ions in water

Strong acids are 100 % dissociated in water

HA + H2O H3O+ + A-
Or simply
(One-sided arrow means 100 %
HA(aq) H+ + A-
conversion to products)

➢ Note that H2O is omitted in the simplified dissociation, and H 3O+ is

simplified as H+

Weak acids are only partially dissociated in water

(Double-sided arrow means
HA(aq) H +
+ A -
partial conversion to products)
 Dissociation of strong acids and
weak acids in water

Before After Before After

dissociation dissociation dissociation dissociation
125 125

HA H+ A- HA un-ionized
100 100 HA
HA
75 75

50 50

25 25 H+ A-
0 0

Strong acid Weak acid

➢ Greater tendency to dissociate (ionize) = stronger acid

STRONG ACIDS and STRONG BASES

There are only seven (7) strong acids: General formula HA, where A is
an anion

HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4, HNO3, HClO3, HClO4

First ionization only Chloric and perchloric acid

There are only seven (7) strong bases: General formula M(OH)n, where M is
a Group I or II metal with charge n+
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

Group I metal hydroxides Group II metal hydroxides

➢ If it is NOT in the list above, it is weak

 Review of Concepts

Exercise: Identify each of the following species as either a strong acid

(SA), strong base (SB), weak acid (WA) or weak base (WB)

Species ID

HCN

Mg(OH)2

H2CO3

HI

NH3

HC2H3O2

NH4+
 Three Definitions of Acids and
Bases
• Svante Arrhenius (Swedish 1887)

• Bronsted- Lowry (Danish and English

1923 independently proposed
definition)

• Gilbert Lewis (American 1920’s)

 Arrhenius Definition of Acids and
Bases
• Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+) in
an aqueous solution, while bases
produce hydroxide ion (OH ).
-

Acid: HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Base: NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

 The Arrhenius Definition
• According to the Arrhenius concept of acids and
bases, an acid is a substance that, when
dissolved in water, increases the
concentration of hydronium ion (H3O+)
(produces H+).
– Chemists often use the notation H+(aq) for the H3O+(aq) ion, and call it the
hydrogen ion.

– Remember, however, that the aqueous hydrogen ion is actually chemically

bonded to water, that is, H3O+.
Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases

The H3O+ is shown here

hydrogen bonded to three
water molecules.
Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases

• A base, in the Arrhenius concept, is a

substance that, when dissolved in
water, increases the concentration of
hydroxide ion, OH-(aq) (produces OH-).
 Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
• In the Arrhenius concept, a strong (100%) acid
is a substance that ionizes completely in
aqueous solution to give H3O+(aq) and an anion.

An example is perchloric acid, HClO4.

– strong acids include HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3 , HClO4, and H2SO4….
– Must memorize
Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
• In the Arrhenius concept, a strong
(100%) base is a substance that
dissociates completely in aqueous
solution to give OH-(aq) and a cation.
– An example is sodium hydroxide, NaOH (ionic).

– strong bases include NaOH, LiOH, KOH,

Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, and Ba(OH)2.
– memorize
 Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases

• Rest of acids and bases (NH3, NH2-, NH-, anions) that you
encounter are weak. They are not completely ionized and exist
in reversible reaction with the corresponding ions.

– An example is acetic acid, HC2H3O2.

– Ammonium hydroxide, NH4OH, is a weak base.

Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
• The Arrhenius concept is limited in that it looks at
acids and bases in aqueous solutions only involving
H+ and OH-. There are many substances with
acid/base properties that do not involve these and
cannot be classified by this theory.
– In addition, it singles out the OH- ion as the source of base character,
when other species can play a similar role

– There are broader definitions of acids and bases which we will cover.
 The Brønsted-Lowry Definition
• According to the Brønsted-Lowry concept, an
acid is the species donating the proton in a
proton-transfer reaction.
• A base is the species accepting the proton in
a proton-transfer reaction.
– In any reversible acid-base reaction, both forward and reverse reactions
involve proton transfer.
– notice this theory is only looking at proton not even looking at hydroxide.
This theory is useful in aqueous solution and the one we will use the most
in this chapter since dealing with aq chemistry
 Bronsted- Lowry Definition
of Acids and Bases
• An acid is a proton (H+) donor.
• A base is a proton (H+) acceptor.

• Example:

HF + H2O H 3O + F
+ -

Acid Base

H3O : hydronium ion

+
 The Brønsted-Lowry Definition
• According to the Brønsted-Lowry concept, an
acid is the species donating the proton in a
proton-transfer reaction.
• A base is the species accepting the proton in
a proton-transfer reaction.
– In any reversible acid-base reaction, both forward and reverse reactions
involve proton transfer.
– notice this theory is only looking at proton not even looking at hydroxide.
This theory is useful in aqueous solution and the one we will use the most
in this chapter since dealing with aq chemistry
Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and
Bases

• Consider the reaction of NH3 and H20. Based

on Arrhenius theory (produces OH-) therefore
NH3 is a base in water.
Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and
Bases
• What is it by Bronsted-Lowry?

base acid

H+
– In the forward reaction, NH3 accepts a proton
from H2O. Thus, NH3 is a base and H2O is an
acid. Same conclusion without looking at OH-
Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and
Bases

acid base

H+
– Since this is a reversible reaction, there is also
acid/base components on the reverse rxn. NH4+
donates a proton to OH-. The NH4+ ion is the acid
and OH- is the base.
Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and
Bases

base acid acid base

– The species NH4+ / NH3 and H2O / OH- are

conjugate acid-base pair.
– A conjugate acid-base pair consists of two
species in an acid-base reaction, one acid and one
base, that differ by the loss or gain of one
proton.
Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and
Bases

base 1 acid 2 acid 1 base 2

– NH4+ is the conjugate acid of NH3 and NH3 is the

conjugate base of NH4+ (NH4+ /NH3). H2O is the
conjugate acid of OH- and OH- is the conjugate
base of H2O (H2O/OH-).
– The Brønsted-Lowry concept defines a species as
an acid or a base according to its function in the
proton-transfer reaction.
 Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and
Bases
– Water can also react as a base with the acid HF.

acid base
–H2O base and H3O+ conj acid
–HF acid and F- conj base

H+
What dictates if the species will be an acid or base? The other substance.
The better acid will be the acid and the amphoteric species will be the
base and if the other species is a better base than the amphoteric species
will be the acid. For the most part, water and polyatomic ions containing
protons and charges are the amphoteric species you should be
concerned.
 Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and
Bases
• Some species can act as an acid or a base.
– An amphoteric species is a species that can act either as an acid or a base (it
can gain or lose a proton).

– For example, HCO3- acts as a proton donor (an acid) in the presence of OH-

acid base

H+

–HCO3- acid and CO32- conj base

–OH- base and H2O conj acid
Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and
Bases
– Alternatively, HCO3- can act as a proton acceptor (a base) in the
presence of HF. Proton accepter and base in this reaction. HCO3- base,
H2CO3 conj acid, HF acid, F- conj base

base acid

H+
–HCO3- base and H2CO3 conj acid
–HF acid and F- conj base
Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and
Bases
• In the Brønsted-Lowry concept:
1. A base is a species that accepts protons; OH- is only one example of a base.

2. Acids and bases can be ions as well as molecular substances.

3. Acid-base reactions are not restricted to aqueous solution but most of what we do
will be.
4. Some species can act as either acids or bases depending on what the other
reactant is. Molecular species that we call acids and bases will always be that in
water; water will be the other.
Lewis Definition of Acids and Bases

• An acid accepts a pair of electrons.

• A base donates a pair of electrons.

• This is a more general definition than

the previous two.
• Example:

:NH3 + H+  NH4+
 The Lewis Definition
• The Lewis concept defines an acid as an
electron pair acceptor and a base
makes available electron pair.
– This concept broadened the scope of acid-base
theory to include reactions that did not involve H+.

– The Lewis concept embraces many reactions

that we might not think of as acid-base
reactions. Most useful definition.
 Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases
• The reaction of boron trifluoride with
ammonia is an example.
:

:
:F : H :F : H
: :

: :
:F B + :N H :F B N H
:F : H :F : H
:

:
– Boron trifluoride accepts the electron pair, so it is a Lewis acid. Ammonia
makes available the electron pair, so it is the Lewis base.
Three Models of Acids and Bases
Model Definition of Acid Definition of Base

Arrhenius H+ producer OH- producer

Bronsted-Lowry H+ donor H+ acceptor

Lewis Electron-pair Electron-pair

acceptor donor
Conjugate Acids and Bases
• Conjugate acid is the particle formed
that has received the proton. (ex:
H 3O )
+

• Conjugate base is the particle left

from the acid once it has donated the
proton.
 Conjugate Acids and Bases
• General expression:

HA (aq) + H2O (l) H3O (aq) + A (aq)

+ -

Acid Base Conjugate Conjugate

Acid Base
 Importance of WATER
• Water acts as an acid and as a base.
It is amphoteric
 Definitions of Acids and Bases

• We will look at several (not all) concepts

of acid-base theory including:

– The Arrhenius concept

– The Bronsted Lowry concept
– The Lewis concept
 Acids and Bases Strengths
The acid dissociation constant is also known as the acidity
constant or acid-ionization constant.

HA ⇆ A- + H+
Ka = [A-][H+]/[HA]

• If Ka is large, the formation of the products of the dissociation is favored.

• If Ka is small, the undissolved acid is favored.

Relating Ka and pKa

A related value is pKa, which is the logarithmic acid dissociation constant:

pKa = -log10Ka
Ka may be used to predict the strength of an acid:

• If Ka is large (pKa is small) this means the acid is mostly dissociated, so the acid is
strong. Acids with a pKa less than around -2 are strong acids.
• If Ka is small (pKa is large), little dissociation has occurred, so the acid is weak. Acids
with a pKa in the range of -2 to 12 in water are weak acids.

Ka is a better measure of the strength of an acid than pH because adding water to an acid solution
doesn't change its acid equilibrium constant, but does alter the H+ ion concentration and pH.

Which one is stronger?

HCN
HF

Ka=7.2 x10-4 Ka=6.2 x10-10

NH3 CH3NH2
Kb Kb=7.8 x10-5
Kb=4.4 x10-4
 32.2 Acids and Bases Strengths
• The Brønsted-Lowry concept introduced the idea of conjugate acid-base
pairs and proton-transfer reactions.
– We consider such acid-base reactions to be a competition between
species for hydrogen ions.
– The stronger acids are those that lose their hydrogen ions more easily
than other acids; donate proton quicker.
– From this point of view, we can order acids by their relative strength as
hydrogen ion donors.
– Similarly, the stronger bases are those that hold onto hydrogen ions more
strongly than other bases; harder to lose proton.
Bottom line:
easier give up proton, stronger the acid
harder to give up proton, stronger the base.
Relative Strength of Acids and Bases
– If an acid loses its H+, the resulting anion is now in a position to reaccept a
proton, making it a Brønsted-Lowry base.
– It is logical to assume that if an acid is considered strong, its conjugate base
(that is, its anion) would be weak, since it is unlikely to accept a hydrogen ion. It
wants to donate proton as soon as it accepts a proton.

– In other words, the stronger the acid, the weaker the conjugate base (can't be
strong acid and strong conj base). Which gets us to the following statement:

– The stronger the conj acid is an acid, the weaker its conj base is a base.
The stronger the conj base is a base, the weaker its conj acid is an acid.

– HCl + H2O --> H3O+ + Cl-

– strong acid extremely weak base, non-existent

– HCN + H2O <--> H3O+ + CN-

– weak acid stronger base than Cl

– HCl stronger acid than HCN; therefore, CN- stronger base than Cl-
– Easy to determine strength between classes (one strong, one weak)
Strengths of Binary Acids, Oxoacids,
and Polyprotic Acids
• How do we determine the strength of acids/bases that are in the
same class (all strong or weak). Two factors are important in
determining the relative acid strengths.
– One is the polarity of the bond to which the hydrogen atom is attached.

– The H atom has a partial positive charge:

d+ d-

– The more polarized (larger EN difference) the bond, the more easily the
proton is removed and the greater the acid strength.
Molecular Structure and Acid Strength
– The second factor is the strength of the bond or, in other words, how
tightly the proton is held.

– This depends on the size, d, of atom X.

d+ d-

– The larger atom X, the weaker the bond and the greater the acid strength. (less
attraction between atoms, easier to pull off proton).

Larger EN difference and size of anion, stronger the acid

(easier to pull proton off)
Molecular Structure and Acid Strength
• Consider a series of binary acids from a
given column of elements.
– Let’s predict the following order of acidic strength.
– As you go down the column of elements, the radius increases markedly and
dictates result (adding shell further away) and the H-X bond strength
decreases.

smaller radius, harder larger radius, easiest

ionize, weakest acid ionize, strongest acid
< < <

Aqueous soln:

< = =
strong acids
This acid strength for the strong acids does not hold true for water as the
solvent. Remember that we discussed earlier that some acids are strong and
others are weak. The strength is related to the amount it ionizes . In water,
the strong acids/bases ionize 100% meaning these species break up 100%.
All these acids look the same in water which is called the "leveling effect" of
water. The tendency of a solvent to accept or donate protons determines the
strength of a solute acid or base dissolved in it. The strong species all
completely ionize and are the same strength.
–HCl + H2O --> H3O+ + Cl- If 1M solution, 0M HCl and 1M hydronium
–both strong acid
–HBr + H2O --> H3O+ + Br- If 1M solution, 0M HBr and 1M hydronium
–Therefore strongest acid in water is hydronium ion and strongest base hydroxide ion.
However, in another organic solvent you would find that based on bond strengths
(radius) that HBr would ionize more (easier) than HCl and is truly the stronger acid but
in water there is no difference in ionization therefore same strength hence “leveling
effect” of water.
 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength
• As you go across a row of elements, the
polarity of the H-X bond becomes the
dominant factor.
– As electronegativity increases going to the right, the polarity of the H-X
bond increases by large amount as compare to change in size and the
acid strength increases.

– Let’s predict the following order of acidic strength.

smaller EN diff, harder larger EN diff, easiest

ionize, weakest acid ionize, strongest acid
– note: ammonium typically base in water

< <
Molecular Structure and Acid Strength

• Consider the oxoacids. An oxoacid has

the structure:

– The acidic H atom is always attached to an O atom

– Bond polarity is the dominant factor in the relative strength of oxoacids.

– This, in turn, depends on the electronegativity of the atom Y.
Molecular Structure and Acid Strength

– If the electronegativity of Y is large, then the O-H bond is relatively polar and
the acid strength is greater. Easier to remove proton, stronger acid

– Let’s predict the following order of acidic strength.

> >

Larger EN , easiest smallest EN diff, hardest

ionize, strongest acid ionize, weakest acid
Molecular Structure and Acid Strength
– With each additional O atom, Y becomes effectively
more electronegative.

– As a result, the H atom becomes more acidic as

more O are on the species.
– The acid strengths of the oxoacids of chlorine
increase in the following order.
< < <

weakest strongest
– another way to look at it is charge on Y gets higher stronger pull on O
and weakens O-H bond, easier to remove
Molecular Structure and Acid Strength
• Consider polyprotic (more than one
ionizable proton) acids and their
corresponding anions.
– Each successive H atom becomes more difficult to remove (species
is negatively charged therefore harder to pull positive proton off).

– Therefore the acid strength of a polyprotic acid and its anions decreases with
increasing negative charge.

< <

weakest strongest