Chapter 7

Developmental Psychology
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What is Developmental Psychology?

Developmental Psychology: the scientific study of biological,

social, and personality development across the life span.
Development: progressive changes in behavior and abilities.
1. Change may be qualitative (different kinds of abilities)
or quantitative (different amounts or levels of an ability)
2. Changes in functioning may be physical (body size &
shape; brain anatomy and physiology, hormones, etc.)
or psychological (cognitive or socioemotional)
3. Developmental changes are tied to age and are
generally permanent.
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Nature vs. Nurture

• The fundamental question: what causes development, nature
or nurture?
• Nature: Development is programmed in genetically and
follows a biological blueprint.
• Nurture: Development is determined by how the child is
raised, thus by the environment
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Stages in Developmental Theories

• Most developmental theories are stage theories.

• In stage theories, the child’s capabilities differ significantly from
one stage to another.
• Major changes occur between stages, rather than small,
continuous changes
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Typical Stages in Developmental Theories

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Topics to Explore

1. Prenatal Development & Infancy

2. Cognitive Development
3. Moral & Social Development
 Part 1
Prenatal Development & Infancy
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Heredity & Genetics

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): Molecular structure, shaped
like a double helix that contains coded genetic information
• Genes: Specific areas on a strand of DNA that carry
hereditary information. Genes are segments of
chromosomes located in each cell nucleus
• The sperm and ovum (egg cell) each contain 23
chromosomes.
• When a sperm cell and ovum unite, they form a single cell
called a zygote, which contains 46 chromosomes.
•All cells in the body develop from this original cell, and
contain the same 46 chromosomes.
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Graphic: DNA
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Graphic: Genetic Transmission

 Example of Heredity: 11 of 42

Temperament

Temperament: The physical “core” of personality

Temperamental Types:
• Easy Children: 40 %; relaxed and agreeable
• Difficult Children: 10 %; moody, intense, easily angered
• Slow-to-Warm-Up Children: 15 %; restrained,
unexpressive, shy
• Remaining Children: Do not fit into any specific category
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Twins

• Monozygotic (identical) twins: One ovum is

fertilized by one sperm to form one zygote. Early in
development, the zygote splits entirely in half,
forming two identical zygotes that develop into two
identical babies. The genes of identical twins are
identical.
• Dizygotic (fraternal) twins: Two ova are fertilized
by two different sperm to form two zygotes, which
develop into two non-identical babies. The genes of
fraternal twins are no more alike than any pair of
siblings.
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Stages in Prenatal Development

• Zygotic: from conception through 2nd week, major task =

cell division and implantation
• Embryonic: from 3rd through 8th week; major task =
developmental of most body systems
• Fetal: from 9th through 40th week; major task = growth
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Environmental Influence

• Environment (“Nurture”): All external conditions that

affect development
• Sensitive Periods: A period of increased sensitivity to
environmental influences; also, a time when certain
events must occur for normal development to take place
• Teratogen: an environmental agent (e.g., drugs or
viruses), diseases (e.g., diabetes), or physical condition
(e.g., malnutrition) that impairs prenatal development
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Deprivation & Enrichment

• Deprivation: Lack of normal stimulation, nutrition,

comfort, or love
• Enrichment: When an environment is deliberately
made more complex and intellectually stimulating
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Growth of Brain Synapses

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The Mozart Effect?

• Rauscher & Shaw (1998) claimed that after college

students listened to Mozart they scored higher on a spatial
reasoning test
• Original experiment done with adults; tells us nothing about
children
• What effect would listening to other styles of music have?
• Most researchers unable to duplicate the effect
• Conclusion: Those who listened to Mozart were just more
alert or in a better mood
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Neonatal Reflexes

• Grasping Reflex: If an object is placed in the infant’s palm,

she’ll grasp it automatically (all reflexes are automatic responses;
i.e., they come from nature, not nurture).
• Rooting Reflex: Lightly touch the infant’s cheek and he’ll turn
toward the object and attempt to nurse; helps infant find nipple or
food.
• Sucking Reflex: Touch an object or nipple to the infant’s
mouth and she’ll make rhythmic sucking movements.
• Moro Reflex: If a baby’s position is abruptly changed or if he is
startled by a loud noise, he will make a hugging motion.
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Motor Development
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Motor Homunculus

“homunculus” = “a
diminutive human
being”
 Part 2
Cognitive Development
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Language Acquisition

• Cooing: Repetition of vowel sounds by infants

• Babbling: Repetition of meaningless language sounds
(e.g., babababa)
• Holophrases: child expresses a complete thought in
single words.
• Telegraphic Speech: Two word sentences that
communicate a single idea (e.g., Want yogurt)
• Overextension (extending word beyond adult definition)
and underextension (restricting word to less than adult
definition)
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Communication in Infancy

• Parents and infants develop system of shared signals,

including touching, vocalizing, and smiling.
• Signals establish a pattern of communication turn-taking,
sending and receiving messages.
• Infants gradually develop ability to initiate activities,
including communication.
• Before infants learn verbal words, they learn to use
gestures as communication.
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Parentese
Parentese (Motherese): Pattern of speech used when talking
to infants

Characterized by:
• raised voice (higher pitch)
• short, simple sentences
• repetition
• slow rate of speech
• exaggerated voice inflections

Parentese found in parents speaking all languages. It helps

parents get babies’ attention and functions to help them learn
language.
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Jean Piaget & Cognitive Development

• Piaget believed that all children passed through a set series

of stages during their cognitive development; like Freud, he
was a Stage Theorist.
• Assimilation: Application of existing mental patterns to new
situations.
• Accommodation: Existing ideas are changed to
accommodate new information or experiences.
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Jean Piaget
 Stage 1: 27 of 42

Sensory-Motor Period
Sensorimotor (0-2 Years): All sensory input and motor
responses are coordinated; infants learn to coordinate their
actions to what they see, hear, touch.
• Infants develop simple understanding of cause-effect.
• Infants develop concept of objects, understanding of what
objects can do and relationships between objects.
• Object Permanence: Concept that objects still exist when
they are out of sight.
• Intellectual development in this stage is largely nonverbal.
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Graphic: Object Permanence

 Stage 2:
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Preoperational Period
Preoperations (2-7 Years): Children begin to use language and
think symbolically, BUT their thinking is still intuitive and
egocentric.

• From 2 to 4 years, preoperational children begin

developing concepts (e.g., time, space, relationships,
colors)
• Egocentric: Child is able to consider only one point of
view at a time. Usually children consider their own
viewpoint, and cannot incorporate the viewpoints of others.
• Beginning at 4 years, children have very primitive logic
relating two factors at a time (functional logic)
 Stage 3:
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Concrete Operational Period

Concrete Operations (7-11 years): Children become able to use

concepts of time, space, volume, and number BUT in ways that
remain simplified and concrete, not abstract.

• Conservation: Understanding that mass, weight, and

volume (and other dimensions) remain unchanged when the
shape or appearance of objects changes
• Reversibility of Thought: Relationships involving equality or
identity can be reversed.
• Other logical abilities: classification, measurement,
seriation
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Formal Operational Period

Formal Operations (11 Years and Up): Thinking now includes

abstract, theoretical, and hypothetical ideas.
• Abstract Ideas: Concepts and examples removed from
specific examples and concrete situations.
• Hypothetical Possibilities: Suppositions, guesses, or
projections.
• Deductive reasoning: Teenagers can make deductive
conclusions based on relationship between variables.
 Part 3
Moral & Social Development
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Kohlberg’s Theory
Preconventional Right and wrong Comply with rules to
morality determined by avoid punishment or
consequences gain rewards
Conventional Right and wrong Comply with rules to
morality determined by gain approval or to
authority do duty to uphold
laws
Postconventional Right and wrong Comply with rules to
Morality determined by ethics maintain social
& enforced by social order, unless rules
contract violate universal
ethics
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Development of Emotions
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Emotional Expressions
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Attachment

Separation Anxiety: Crying and signs of fear when a child is left

alone or with a stranger; appears around 8-12 months

Contact Comfort: Pleasant and reassuring feeling babies get

from touching something warm and soft, such as their mother

Quality of Attachment
• Secure: Stable and positive emotional bond
• Insecure-Avoidant: Tendency to avoid reunion with parent
or caregiver
• Insecure-Ambivalent: High resistance to being separated
from parent; unwilling to leave parent
• Insecure-Disoriented: inconsistent reaction to parent’s
absence and return
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Parenting Styles

• Authoritarian: demanding; expect unquestioned

obedience; communicate poorly with children
• Permissive: make few demands on child; overly respon-
sive to child’s desires
• Authoritarian: demanding in setting high expectations;
responsive to child’s desires; communicates well with
children
• Uninvolved: spend little time with children and
minimize their emotional involvement
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Erik Erikson
 Erikson’s Stages of
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Psychosocial Development

Stage One: Trust versus Mistrust: (birth to 1 year)

• Trust: Established when babies given adequate warmth,
touching, love, and physical care
• Mistrust: Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and
by cold, indifferent, and rejecting parents

Stage Two: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1 to 2

years)
• Autonomy: Doing things for themselves, making choices
• Shame & Doubt: Children who are not allowed to make
their own choices begin to doubt themselves
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Psychosocial Development, continued

Stage Three: Initiative versus Guilt (preschool years)

• Initiative: Children learn to choose their own activities, to
initiate activities (but not necessarily complete them!)
• Guilt: If parents don’t allow children to initiate activities,
children develop sense of guilt when they do

Stage Four: Industry versus Inferiority (elementary school

years)
• Industry: Occurs when child is praised for productive
activities
• Inferiority: Occurs if child’s efforts are regarded as messy
or inadequate
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Psychosocial Development, continued

Stage Five: Identity versus Role Confusion (Adolescence)

• Identity: For adolescents; problems answering, “Who
am I?”
• Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescents are unsure
of where they are going

Stage Six: Intimacy versus Isolation (Early Adulthood)

• Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to share
experiences with them
• Isolation: Being alone and uncared for in life
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Psychosocial Development, continued

Stage Seven: Generativity versus Stagnation (Mid-

Adulthood)
• Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation
•Stagnation: When one is only concerned with one’s own
needs and comforts

Stage Eight: Integrity versus Despair (Old Age)

• Integrity: Self-respect; developed when people have
lived richly and responsibly:
• Despair: Occurs when previous life events are viewed
with regret; experiences heartache and remorse