Electric circuit

• An electric circuit is inter connection of various

elements such as voltage source ,resistor,current
source,capacitor,inductor.
• Two types of current is flowing in circuit.
1) Direct current(DC)
2) Alternating current(AC)
 Elements of electric circuit
• An electric circuit consist of two types of
elements
1) active elements or source
2) passive elements or sinks
Source or active elements are the elements of
circiut which posses energy of their own and
impact it to other elements of circuit
 Resistance
• Resistance is the propetry of conductor by virtue of
which it opposes or limits the flow of current through
it.
• The unit of resistance is ohm,named by George simon
ohm.
• The resistance of conductor is directly propotional to
its lengthand inversly propotional to its area of cross
section
• ρ is constant known as specific resistance or
resistivity of the material of the conductor.
• The unit of resistivity is ohm-meter
• ρ=R if l=1 a=1
• Hence resistivity of conductor may be defined as its
resistance when its length and area of cross section is
unity.
 Electric current

• In the outer most orbit of the atom of conductor there

are free electron which can be dislodged from the
parent atom by the application of extrenal force In a
particular direction,constitute flow of current.
• The rate at which electrical charge is transferred
across a point in a conductor is known as current
flowing through the conductor.
• The unit of current is ampere.
 The Ampere
• One ampere of current is defined as that current
which when flowing through a resistance of one
ohm,causes potential difference of one volt across it.
• From the definition of electric current one ampere of
current may also be defined as current flowing
through a conductor when charge of one columb
crosses across a point in a conductor in one second.
• One columb of charge is equal to 6.242*10^18
electrons.
• Hence one ampere of current is said to be flowing
through a conductor when 6.242*10^18 electrons
cross across a point in the conductor in one second
 Potential Difference
• The potential difference between any two points of
the charged conductor is the amount of work that has
to be done to bring unit positive charge from the point
of lower potential to point of higher potential.
• The unit of potential difference is volt
• The potential difference is also defined as voltage
difference between two points of the conductor.
 Volt
• One volt is defined as potential difference across
resistance of one ohm , through which current of one
ampere is flowing.
 EMF of source
• EMF of source is the voltage available across
its terminal.
• The voltage available across the terminal of
voltage source is slightly less then its internal
voltage,due to small voltage drop across its
internal resistance

e is input voltage R is internal resistance I is

current flowing in a circuit.
 OHM’s Law
• The temperature remaining constant the current
flowing through any conductor is directly propotional
to the potential difference between the two ends of
the conductor.

• R is constant known as resistance of the conductor.

• Ohm’s law can be applied to both AC and DC circuits
• Limitation of ohm’s law
1. Not applicable to non linear device such as
diode,zener diode etc
2.It does not hold good for non metallic
conductor such as silicon carbide. The law for
such conductors is given by

Where k and m are constant.

 Power
• Power is defined as the rate at which ,the work
is done.
• It is amount of energy consumed per unit time.
• Unit is Jaul/sec

• Or Its unit is Watt

 Energy
• Energy is the capacity to do work.
• It is equal to the total work done in a particular time.
• The unit is Watt Sec

• Watt second is small unit of energy.The practical unit

of energy is kilo watt hour(kWH).
 Resistance in series
Three resistors R1,R2,R3 are connected in series. V is the voltage applied
across the combination and I is the current flowing through

them.V1,V2,V3 are voltage drop across R1,R2,R3 respectively .

Then

Or

If there are n resistances connected in series then total resistance

is given by
 Resistance in Parallel
• Three resistance R1,R2,R3 are connected in parallel across
voltage V volts.
• I is total current I1,I2,I3 are current flowing through R1,R2,R3
respectively

• R = total resistance
• If there are n resistance connected in series the
total resistance is given by

• If there are only two resistance connected

inparallel then total resistance is given by
 Current in parallel branch
• Consider a parallel circuit of two resistor R1 and R2
connected across a source of V volts
• Current through R1 is I1 and R2 is I2.
• Total current drawn from source is I.
 Current in parallel branch
• Consider a parallel circuit of two resistor R1 and R2
connected across a source of V volts
• Current through R1 is I1 and R2 is I2.
• Total current drawn from source is I.
 Current in parallel branch
• Consider a parallel circuit of two resistor R1 and R2
connected across a source of V volts
• Current through R1 is I1 and R2 is I2.
• Total current drawn from source is I.
• Substituting value of I1 in I
 Voltage division rule
• Consider series circuit of two resistor R1 and R2 connected to
source of V volts
• As two resistors are connected in series the current flowing
through both resistors are same.

• Total applied voltage is equal to sum of voltage drop VR1 and

VR2 across R1 and R2 respectively
• Similarly

• So voltage drop across any resistor or combination of resistor

in series circuit is equal to ratio of that resistance value to the
toatl resistance multiplied by source voltage
 Kirchoff Laws
• These laws enables us to find current flowing in an
electric circuit and voltage across various elements of
circuit
• 2 laws
1) Kirchoff current law
2) kirchoff voltage law
 Kirchoff current law
• The algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at any
junction of an electrical circuit is zero

The total current flowing towards a junction point is

equal to the total current flowing away from that
junction point
Current flowing towards junction point are assumed to
be positive while current flowing away from the
junction point is assumed to be negative.
 Kirchoff voltage law
• In any network the algebraic sum of the voltage drop
across the circuit elements of any closed path is equal
to algebraic sum of emf in the path.
• In other words “ algebraic sum of all branch voltage
around any closed path or closed loop is always zero.
• Around closed path
If a battery is connected between points a and b
• If we trace from a to b ie from –ve to +ve it is voltage
rise. Hence emf is +ve
• If battery is traced from b to a or +ve to –ve it is
voltage fall. Hence emf is -ve
If a resistor is connected between a and b and current I
is flowing through resistor
• Voltage drop along direction of current is –ve and
voltage drop across b to a is +ve.
 Leakage and fringing
• Fig shows an iron ring with air gap.

• When magnatising winding is concentrated over a short length

of ring the flux that crosses air gap which is called useful flux
is slightly less then that exit s in the core of iron ring because
of leakage fluxes which complete their path through
surrounding air.
• The ratio of flux in iron core to the flux in air gap is known as
leakage factor.
• The useful flux crossing the air gap tends to
bulge outward at the edge of airgap,thereby
increasing the effective area of gap and
reducing flux density in the gap.this is known
as fringing.
• Longer the air gap larger the fringing.
 Analogy between magnitic and electric
circuit
• Mangetic circuit consist of iron ring on which coil is
wound and in which current is flowing.
an electric circuit consist of resistance across which
emf is connected.
• Mmf creates magnetic flux in magnetic material.
MMF= flux *reluctance
emf creates current through electric ckt
EMF=current*resistance
• Flux density=flux/area=
current density=current/area=

• Recuctance=R=

= absolute permeability
resistance=R=
where =conductivity
 Faradays law
• Michel faraday a british scintist discovered the phinomenon of
electromagnetic induction and enunciated them in the form of
two laws.
First Law: Whenever the flux linking with a conductor
changes, an emf is induced in it.

Second Law: The magnitude of the emf induced in a

conductor or coil is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkages of it.
• “The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a
direction that the current it drives around the circuit
opposes the change in magnetic flux which produces the
emf”.
• All the three laws can be represented by following
equations: d
dt
E= -N
E is induced emf
Nd
number of turns
dt =rate of change of flux
• -ve sign indicate the induced emf opposes the very
cause of it.
• Explanation:
• Consider a coil of N turns as shown to which
alternating voltage v is applied,due to which
alternating current I flows through coil.
• This alternating current produces alternating flux
which links the coil.hence emf is induced in the coil
which is given by
E= -N d
dt
• This induced emf opposes its own cause.
• The cause of induced emf is the changing flux,which
is due to changing current,which in turn due to
alternating voltage applied
• Hence we say that induced emf the applied voltage
which is the very cause of it.
 Changing of flux
• The change of flux linking an electric circuit can take place in
two ways
1. when conductor cuts across magnitic field of constant flux
density,the flux changes and an emf is induced in the
conductor.
2.when the electric circuit is in the form of coil,which is
stationary and when an alternating current is passed through it
an alteranting flux is produced,which links the coil.hence an
emf is induced in stationary coil.this type of emf induced is
known as statically induced emf.
 Dynamically induced emf
• The emf induced in a conductor due to the relative
motion between the magnetic field and the conductor is
called the dynamically induced emf.
• Consider a magnetic filed of constant flux density B
Wb/m2,which is represented by magnetic lines of flux.
• Let a conductor of lengh l and area of cross section a be
placed perpendicular to the lines of flux.
• When conductor moves with velocity v in the direction I
it moves parallel to the flux and hence does not cut any
flux. Hence emf induced in the conductor is zero.
• When conductor moves with velocity v in direction II it
moves perpendicular to the lines of flux and cuts max flux.
Hence emf is induced in the conductor is max.
• To find exp for max induced emf let the conductor moves
through small distance dx in dt sec. the flux cut by
conductor is

• The rate at which flux is cut is given by

• According to faradays law of electromagnetic
induction the above eq is nothing but emf induced in
the conductor which is max

• When conductor moves in direction III making an

angle ɵ with direction of lines of flux with velocity v,
the component of velocity perpendicular to direction
of flux is ,hence emf induced in the conductor
is
• The component of velocity v does not
contribute emf induced
• The direction of dynamically induced emf is
given by Flemings right hand thumb rule
 Flemings rule
• The relative directions of the magnetic field,
current, and motion in an electric generator or
motor, can be represented using one's fingers.
• The three directions are represented by the
thumb (for motion), forefinger (for field), and
middle finger (for conventional current), all
held at right angles to each other.
• The right hand is used for generators and the
left for motors. The rules were devised by the
English physicist John Fleming.
Fleming's Right hand rule:
The Right hand is held with the
thumb index finger and middle
finger mutually at right angles.
The Fore finger represents the
direction of the Magnetic Field.
The Middle finger represents the
direction of the Induced E.M.F or
Current
The Thumb represents the direction
of the Motion of the Conductor.
 Statically induced emf
• When both magnetic field and the conductor
are stationary, emf induced in a conductor or
coil due to the variation of flux linking with
the conductor is called statistically induced
emf.
• In this neither the conductor nor the magnetic
field moves, but the strength of the magnetic
field varies.
• Consider a coil of N turns as shown to which
alternating voltage v is applied,due to which
alternating current I flows through coil.
• This alternating current produces alternating flux
which links the coil.hence emf is induced in the coil
which is given by
 d
E= -N
dt

where ‘E’= electromotive force in volts,N=

No.of turns of wire,Ф=Magnetic flux density
in webers
The induced emf in a coil is equal to the
negative of the rate of change of magnetic
flux
times the number of turns in the coil
 d
E= -N
dt

Where
L is constant known as self inductance of coil
is constant .
There are two types of statically induced
emf’s. They are :
• Self-induced emf
• Mutually-induced emf
 Self inductance
• Self inductance is defined as the induction of a
voltage in a current-carrying wire when the current in
the wire itself is changing.
• Self inductance of coil is also defined as number of
weber turns produced per ampere in the coil

N N .NI N2
L  
I IR l / 0 r a

• Therefore
 0  r aN 2
L
l Wb/m2
 Energy stored in inductor
Energy Stored in an Inductor:
• An inductor is an inductive coil, which possesses both
inductance and a small resistance.
• If the resistance is neglected, it is called as an ideal inductor
• A pure inductance does not consume any energy and the
energy supplied to the coil is stored in the form of an
electromagnetic field.
• The induced e.m.f opposes any change in the value of the
current flowing through the coil
• Hence in order to establish a steady current of ‘I’ amperes in
‘t’ seconds, work has to be done to overcome the opposition
due to the induced e.m.f.
Contd..
• If Induced emf

• Applied voltage

• The work done in ‘dt’ seconds is given by,

di
dw  Vi dt  L i dt  Li di
• The work done indt‘t’ seconds is given by
t I
W   dw   Li di
0 0
I
i2 
W  L  i di  L   apply the lim from 0  I
0  2
2
I
L
2
ECE Dept, SSE Mukka 51
 Contd..
• This work done is stored in the coil in the form of an electromagnetic
field.
• The energy stored in a coil of inductance ‘L’ henrys(H) in the form of an
electromagnetic field is given by I 2
EL Joules
2

Mutually-induced E.M.F:
• Two coils, which are placed close to each other are said to be mutually
coupled, when a part of the alternating flux produced in one coil links the
other coil
• An e.m.f is induced in both the coils.
• The e.m.f. induced in the first coil, where the flux is produced, is called as
self induced e.m.f
• The e.m.f. induced in the second coil, which links a part of the flux
produced in the first coil, is known as mutually induced e.m.f.
ECE Dept, SSE Mukka 52
 Contd..
• In figure flux ɸ1, links coil 1 and hence an e.m.f. ‘e1’ is induced in it.
d1
e1   N1
dt
• This flux ɸ12 which links both coil 1 and coil 2,
is called as the mutual flux between the two coils.
ɸ1 = ɸ11 + ɸ12
• The mutual flux ɸ12 linking coil 2, induces
an e.m.f. el2 in that coil. This e.m.f. is known as
the mutually induced e.m.f
d 1 2
e1 2   N 2
dt di1
The equation for e12 is also written ase1 2   M 1 2
dt
i.e e.m.f induced in coil 2 due to current flowing in coil 1

ECE Dept, SSE Mukka 53

 • Contd..
• M12 is known as the mutual inductance between coil 1 and coil 2, the
equation for the mutual inductance MI2 may be written as
d12
M 12   N 2
di1
• Similarly equations can be written, when coil 2 is energised by an
alternating current i2, producing a total flux ɸ2 in it, as shown in
figure.
ɸ2= ɸ22 + ɸ21
ɸ2 = total flux produced in coil 2.
ɸ22 = flux that links only coi1.2
ɸ21 = flux that links both coil 2 and coil 1.
The self induced e.m.f. in coil 2 isd
given, by
e2   N 2 2
• dt

ECE Dept, SSE Mukka 54

 Contd.. d 21 di2
• The mutually induced e.m.f in coil 1 is given bye21   N 1   M 21
dt dt
d 21
M 21   N1 Where M21 is the mutual
inductance di2

• As the coupling between the two coils is bilateral M 12 = M21 = M

• The mutual inductance between any two coils,

which are placed close to each other, can be
defined as the ability of one coil to induce an
e.m.f in the other coil, when an alternating
current flows through one of the coils.

ECE Dept, SSE Mukka 55

Coefficient of Coupling (K):
• The Coefficient of Coupling (K) between two coils is defined as the
fraction of magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil that links
the other coil.
• The Co-efficient of coupling is the ratio of the mutual flux to the total
flux.
• The Coefficient of Coupling (K) has a maximum value of 1 (or 100%)
• The Coefficient of Coupling has a minimum value of zero which
indicates that the two coils are magnetically isolated
• Suppose the two coils have self inductances L 1 and L2 and M is the
mutual inductance, then the Coefficient of Coupling is
12  21
K12  and K 21 
1 2
as coupling is bilateral

K12  K 21  K so 12  K  21  K 2
ECE Dept, SSE Mukka 56
 Contd..
M  M 12 .M 21
d12 d 21
M  N2  N1
di1 di2
d ( K1 ) d ( K 2 )
 N1 N 2 
di1 di2
d1 d 2
 K N1
2
 N2
di1 di2
 K L1 L2
2

M
K
L1 L2
ECE Dept, SSE Mukka 57
 Energy stored in magnetic field
•
Inductance in series
Three phase induction motor
 construction
• The three phase induction motor consist of
ROTOR and STATOR
• Rotor is rotating part
• Stator is stationary
• There is small air gap between rotor and
stator-nearly 0.4mm to 4mm
 Stator
• It consist of steel frame which encloses a hollow,cylindrical
core made up of thin laminations of silicon steel to reduce
eddy current loss and hysterisys loss.
• Large number of uniform slots are cut on the inner periphery
of slots.
• A stator conductor is are placed in these slots.
• these conductor are connected as balanced three phase star
winding or delta winding.
• The windings are wound for definite number of poles
depending on requirement of speed
• It is wound for more number of poles for less speed
• When 3 phase supply is given to stator winding a magnetic
field of constant magnitude and rotating at synchronous speed
is given by above expression.
• This rotating magnetic field is responsible for producing
torque in rotor,so it can rotate at its rated speed.
 Rotor
• It is rotating part and is mounted in shaftof the
motor.
• 2 types
1.squirrel cage rotor
2.phase wound rotor(slip ring)
 1.squirrel cage rotor
• Simple and rugged in construction.

• It consist of cylindrical laminated core with parallel slot for

carrying rotor conductor.
• Rotor conductor are heavy bars of copper or aluminium.

• One bar is placed in each slot.

• All bars are welded at both ends to two copper end rings thus short
circuiting at both ends.
• As it is short circuited at both ends it is not possibe to add any
extrenal resistance.
2.phase wound rotor
• The rotor is laminated cylindrical core having uniform slots on
its outer periphery
• A three phase winding which is star connected

Is placed in these slots.

• The open ends of star winding are brought out and connected
to three insulated slip rings mounted on shaft of motor with
carbon brushes resting on them.
• Three brushes are externally connected to a three
phase star connected rheostat which is used as starter
during starting period.
• When running in normal condition the slip rings are
automatically short circuited by means of metal
collar,which is pushed along the shaft and connect all
rings together.
 Rotating magnetic field
• When 3 phase supply is given to 3 phase winding of stator a
rotating magnetic field of constant mangitude and rotating
with synchronous speed is produced.
case3
 Working principal
• When 3 phase supply is given to 3 phase winding of stator a
rotating magnetic field of constant mangitude and rotating
with synchronous speed is produced.
• The rotating magnetic field sweeps across rotor conductor,so
conductor cuts the flux and hence emf is induced in rotor
conductor.
• The direction of induced emf is such as to oppose the very
cause of it ie relative speed between rotating magnetic field
and static rotor
• As the rotor conductor are short circuited themselves the
induced emf sets up a current a current through rotor called
rotor current.
• Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux , so
rotor produces its own flux called rotor flux as in the same
direction of RMF.
• The interaction of these two flux causes creation of torque.
• To reduce relative speed a rotor experiences a torque which
rotate the rotor in the same direction as RMF and tries to
catch up the speed of rotating magnetic field.
• But it fails to catch synchronous speed because if it catches up
with speed of RMF the relative speed becomes zero and hence
no emf is induced in rotor conductor so torque becomes zero.
• So rotor will not able to catch up with speed of magnetic field,
but rotate at speed slightly less then synchronous speed.
• The difference b/w synchronous speed Ns of magnitic field
and the actual speed of rotor is called slip speed.
• Slip speed= Ns-N
• The slip of induction motor is defined as ratio
of slip speed to synchronous speed
slip =Ns-N/Ns
• In percent we should express
 Frequency of rotor current
• When rotor is stationary the frequency of rotor current is
same the supply frequency.
• When motor is rotating the frequency of current induced in the
rotor conductor is propotional to relative speed or slip speed.
• If f’ is frequency of induced current in the rotor then

Ns-N=120f’/p
But Ns=120f/p
N is speed of rotor
• From above equations

Ns-N/Ns=f’/f=S

Therefore f’=Sf
The frequency of rotor is slip times the
frequency of supply
 Starters for 3 phase induction motor

• Methode of starting squirrel cage starter

1. using primary resistors
2. using auto transformers
3. using star delta starter
Star delta starter
• The star delta starter is used for squerral cage induction motor
whose stator winding is delta connected during normal
running condition.
• The ends of each phase of stator winding are drawn out and
connected to starter terminal as shown in fig.
• It consist of two way switch which connects the stator winding
in star during starting and delta for normal running.
 **

• When stator is star connected during starting the applied

voltage across each phase of stator is
• Where V is applied line voltage and hence starting current is
given by

Ist = Isc /

Where Ist = Starting curreng

Isc= Starting current that would have flow in stator
winding when motor is directy switched.
• Thus starting current is reduces to times the current that
would have flow through stator winding if direct supply is
given .
• When motor starts the two way switch is closed to delta side,
the motor picks up speed as full voltage is applied and motor
reaches its rated speed.
 Synchronous generator
• An alternator is alternating current voltage generator.
• It is also called synchronous generator.
• Advantages are
 construction

It consist of two parts

1. Stator
2. Rotor
 Stator
• Stator frame made of mild steel plates , welded together to
form cylindrical drum.
• Inside cylindrical drum circular stator laminations are made
of special steel alloy are fixed to avoid eddy current losses.
• There is holes cast in stator frame and radial ventilating
spaces in laminations which circulates free air and help in
cooling of alternator.
 Rotor
• Two types

1. Salient pole type

2. Smooth cylindrical type.
• An alternator with salient pole type is called salient
pole alternator and alternator with smooth cylindrical
type rotor is called non salient alternator or turbo
alternator
 1. Sailent pole type rotor
• This type of rotor is used in low and medium speed
alternator(300 to 600 rpm)
• It consist of large number of projecting poles having their cores
bolted to heavy magnetic wheel of cast iron or steel.
• These rotors have large diameter and short axial length.

• All poles are laminated to reduce eddy current loss.

• Coils are wound on these poles and DC supply is given to these

coils , the poles become electromagnet.
• The DC voltage required to excite the pole coils is obtained
from pilot exciter or DC generator, which is fixed on shaft of
alternator.
• The DC voltage is fed to field coils through carbon brushes
which slide on two slip rings fixed to shaft of alternator.
• Its usually rototes on horizontal axis.
 2. Smooth cylindrical type rotor
• It is usually driven by turbine and rotates at very high
speed(1500 to 3000 rpm).
• The rotor consist of steel laminations which are insulated from
each other and pressed together to form cylindrical core having
number of slots in its outer periphary for accomodating field
winding.
• Such rotor is designed to have two or four poles .

• It usually rotates on vertical axis and is charactarised by small

diameter and large axial length.
• Two or four regions corresponding to central polar areas are
left unslotted and these areas are surrounded by field winding
placed in the slots.
• The field coils are so arranged around these polar areas such
that flux density is maximum on central polar line.
Working principal
• Field winding of rotor are supplied by DC voltage of 110 to
220 V generated by pilot exciter through two brushes which
are set to slide on two slip rings fixed to shaft.
• Rotor is rotated by prime mover and flux produced by rotor
poles sweeps across the stator conductor and hence emf is
induced in them.
• Consider single conductor placed in the slot of stator
• Let the rotor with alternate north and south poles N and S
rotate with angular velocity w in clockwise direction.
• Positive half cycles of emf induced in conductor when north
pole N sweep across it and –ve half cycle of emf induced
when S pole sweeps across conductor.
• Hence one cycle of emf induced when one pair of poles
sweeps across it
• Number of cycles of emf induced in one revolution = P / 2
• Number or revolution per second= N/60

where N is speed
• Therefore frequency of induced emf which is nothing but
number of cycles per second is given by
f = number of cycles of emf induced per revolution* number of
revolution per second
 EMF equation of alternator
• Z= no of stator conductor per phase
• P=number of poles
• F=frequency of induced emf
• ɸ= flux per pole in weber
The flux cut by conductor in one
revolution=pɸ=dɸ
Time taken for one revolution=60/N=dt
Average emf induced in one conductor=dɸ/dt
=pɸ/(60/N)
=
• Average emf induced per phase=

• For sinusoidal wave Erms/Eav=1.11

• Rms value of emf induced per phase=1.11*2fɸZ=
• Emf equation of alternator is
Eph=2.22fɸT v

Because T=no of turns=Z/2

• Emf induced in various conductor are equal in
magnitude and no phase diffrence