Chapter Two

Numbering Systems

1
 2.1 Decimal Number
 The decimal numbering system has 10 digits 0 through 9

 The decimal numbering system has a base of 10 with

each position weighted by a factor of 10

 ….105 104 103 102 101 100. 10-110-2 10-3 10-4 10-5…
 Example :
Express decimal 47 as a sum of the values of each digit :
47 = (4 x 101) + (7 x 100)
= 40 + 7
= 47

2
 2.2 Binary Number
• The binary numbering system has 2 digits 0 and 1

• The binary numbering system has a base of 2 with each

position weighted by a factor of 2

24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5

increase increase
• Example :
101112 = (1 X 24 + 0 X 23 + 1 X 22 + 1 X 21 + 1 X 20 )

3
 24 23 22 21 20

1 0 1 1 1
1x16 0x8 1x4 1x2 1x1

16 0 4 2 1

16 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 2310
4
 2.3 a) Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
• Convert binary to decimal by summing the positions that
contain a 1

1 0 0 1 0 12

2  0.2  0.2  2  0.2  2  32  4  1  3710

5 4 3 2 1 0

5
Binary Count

6
 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion

Step 1: Get n, total binary numbers

– 1101101  n = 7 binary numbers

Step 2: Conversion will stop at 2n-1 = 26

Step 3: Multiply all the numbers with its appropriate

weight

Step 4: Sum the result from step 3, and binary is

now decimal.
7
Step 1: Binary number: 100101  n = 6
Step 2: Stop at 2n-1 = 25

1 0 0 1 0 1
Step 3:
multiply 25 24 23 22 21 20
= 32 0 0 4 0 1
Step 4:
sum +
37

25 24 23 22 21 20
32 16 8 4 2 1
8
 2.3 b) Decimal-to-Binary Conversion

 Two methods to convert decimal to binary:

 1) Sum-of-weights method (reverse
process)
 Determine the set of binary weights whose
sum is equal to the decimal number

 2) Repeated division-by-2 method

 Repeatedly dividing the decimal number by 2
and retrieving the remainder

9
 1) Sum-of-weight method
Binary weights
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
357 = 256 + 64 + 32 + 4 + 1 101100101
= 28 + 26 + 25 + 22 + 20

Binary weights
512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1937 = 1024 + 512 + 256 + 128 + 16 + 1 11110010001

10
 1) Sum-of-weight method

Nearest weight to 58 58
minus
32 32 16 8 2
26 Apply a 1 to these
minus
weights and 0 to others
16
10
minus
8
2
minus
2 25 24 23 22 21 20

0 32 16 8 4 2 1
5810 = 1110102
1 1 1 0 1 0
11
1) Sum-of-weight method

82
minus
64 64 16 2
18 Apply a 1 to these
minus
weights and 0 to others
16
2
minus
2
0
26 25 24 23 22 21 20

64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
12
 1) Sum-of-weight method
• Try this for 25 and 125

125
minus
25 64
minus 64 32 16 8 4 1
16 16 8 1 61 Apply a 1 to these
minus
weights and 0 to others
9 Apply a 1 to these 32
minus
weights and 0 to others
8 29
minus
1 16
minus
1 13
minus 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
0 8
5 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
24 23 22 21 20 minus
4 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
16 8 4 2 1
1
1 1 0 0 1 minus
1
0

13
 2)Repeated division-by-2
• Repeated division steps:
– Divide the decimal number by 2
– Write the remainder after each division until a
quotient of zero is obtained.
– The first remainder is the LSB and the last is
the MSB
• Note, when done on a calculator, a
fractional answer indicates a remainder of 1.

14
• This flowchart describes the
process and can be used to
convert from decimal to any
other number system.

15
1210 = X2 Remainder

12 = 6 0
Right/LSB

6 = 3 0
2 1 1 0 0

3 = 1 1
2

1 = 0 1
2 Left/MSB

Stop when the 16

quotient = 0
4510 = Y2 Remainder

45 = 22 1
Right/LSB

2
22 = 11 0
2
11 = 5 1 0 1 1 0 1
1
2
5 = 2 1
2
2 = 1 0
2
1 = 0 1 17
2 Left/MSB
Converting Decimal Fractions-to-Binary

• 2 ways to convert:
– 1) Sum-of-weight
– 2) Repeated multiplication of 2

2 -1 2 -2 2 -3 2 -4

0.5 0.25 0.125 0.0625

divide by 2 from
previous value

18
 2) Repeated multiplication by 2

• Conversion of decimal-binary
– Whole numbers  repeated division by 2
– Fractions  repeated multiplication by 2
Step 1: multiply number by 2
Step 2: note the carry (1 or 0)
Step 3: repeat with new fraction
Stop when fraction part = 0

19
 carry
left/MSB
0.3125 x 2 = 0.625 0

0.625 x 2 = 1.25 1
. 0 1 0 1

0.25 x 2 = 0.50 0

0.50 x 2 = 1.00 1
right/LSB

stop when fractional

part = 0 OR
continue until desired
number of decimal
places
20
2.4 Converting Decimal Fractions-to-Binary
Using Sum-of-weights
Binary weights
64 32 16 8 4 2 1 .5 .25 .125 .0625
95.6875 = 64 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 + .5 + .125 + .0625
=
1011111.1011
Repeated division by 2 yields the whole number while
repeated multiplication by 2 of the fraction yields the binary
fraction

21
 2.5 Hexadecimal Number
System
• Most digital systems deal with groups of bits in
even powers of 2 such as 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits.
• Hexadecimal uses groups of 4 bits.
• Base 16
– 16 possible symbols
– 0-9 and A-F
• Allows for convenient handling of long binary
strings.

22
 Hex-to-Decimal Conversion
• Convert from hex to decimal by multiplying
each hex digit by its positional weight.

• Example:

16316  1 (16 )  6  (16 )  3  (16 )

2 1 0

 1 256  6 16  3  1
 35510
 Decimal-to-Hex Conversion
• Convert from decimal to hex by using the
repeated division method used for decimal to
binary and decimal to octal conversion.

• Divide the decimal number by 16

• The first remainder is the LSB and the last is
the MSB.

– Note, when done on a calculator a decimal remainder

can be multiplied by 16 to get the result. If the
remainder is greater than 9, the letters A through F are
used.
24
 Decimal-to-Hex

650 Right/LSB
= 40.625 x 16 = 10 = A
16
40 2 8 A
= 2.5 x 16 = 8
16
2
= 0.125 x 16 = 2
16
Left/M SB
done!
650 10 = 28A 16

25
 Binary-to-Hex Conversion

• Convert from binary to hex by grouping

bits in four starting with the LSB.
• Each group is then converted to the hex
equivalent
• Leading zeros can be added to the left of
the MSB to fill out the last group.

26
 Example
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

• Example of binary to hex conversion.

(Note the addition of leading zeroes)

11101001102 = 0011 1010 0110

= 3 A 6
= 3A616
• Counting in hex requires a reset and carry
after reaching F.
27
 Binary-to-Hex

1100101001010111 2
1100101001010111 2
12 10 5 7
C A 5 7
C A 57 16
28
 Hex-to-Binary
• Represent each hex decimal digit to binary.
• Concatenate the result.

29
 Example
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

• Example of hex to binary conversion.

9F216 = 9 F 2
= 1001 1111 0010
= 1001111100102

30
 Hex and Octal

• Hex and octal are useful forms of

shorthand to represent long strings of bits.
• Understanding the conversion process
and memorizing the 4 bit patterns for each
hex digit will prove valuable later.

31
 2.6 Octal Number
• The Octal Number System:
– uses base 8
– includes only the digits 0 through 7

• The Octal system is based on the binary

system with a 3-bit boundary

85 84 83 82 81 80
32768 4096 512 64 8 1

32
 2.6 Octal Number
 Binary-to-Octal Conversion
 (ex : 10101111101100102)

001 010 111 110 110 010

1 2 7 6 6 2
 Octal-to-Binary Conversion
 (ex : 1276628)

1 2 7 6 6 2
001 010 111 110 110 010

33
 2.7 Binary Arithmetic
 Addition
 Subtraction
 Multiplication
 Division
 Complement

34
 Binary Addition
 Binary Addition works like “normal” addition
 Stay with in {0,1}
 Carries as usual
 Example
Carry: 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1
+ 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
 Addition of multiple numbers possible
 Carry gets a bit more difficult
35
 Binary Subtraction
 Subtraction same as “normal” subtraction
 Borrows as usual
 Example:

1 1 1 1 0 1
- 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0

36
 Binary Multiplication
 Same as “normal” multiplication
 Multiplication a lot easier in binary domain
 Example:
1 1 1 1 0 1
x 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

37
 Binary Division
 Same as “normal” division
 Example:

38
 Complement
 1’s complement
 2’s complement

39
 1’s complement
• The 1’s complement of binary number is
found by all 1s to 0s and all 0s to 1s

• Application: Parallel inverters

40
 2’s complement
 The 2’s complement of binary numbers is found
by:
1. Adding 1 to the LSB of the 1’s complement
• +2 = 00000010
• +1 = 00000001
• +0 = 00000000
• -1 = 11111111
• -2 = 11111110
 Application : In negative number adders
41
 Cont…
2. By subtracting the given n-bit number N
from 2n.

3. Starting at the LSB, copying down each

bit up to and including the first 1 bit
encountered, and complementing the
remaining bits.

42
Example: Express -45 in 8-bit 2’s complement form.
Solution
+45 in 8-bit form is 00101101.
First method
Obtain the 1’s complement of 00101101 and then add 1.
Positive expression of the given number 00101101
1’s complement of it 11010010
Add 1 +1
Thus, the 2’s complement form of -45 is 11010011
Second method
Subtract the given number N from 2n
2n = 100000000
Subtract 45 =  00101101
Thus, the 2’s complement form of -45 is 11010011
Third method
Copy down the bits starting from LSB up to and including the first 1, and
then complement the remaining bits.
Original number 00101101
Copy up to first 1 bit 1
Complement the remaining bits 1101001
Thus, the 2’s complement form of -45 is 11010011 43
 2.8 Signed Numbers
 Digital systems, such as the computer, must be able to
handle both positive and negative numbers.
 A signed binary number consists of both sign and
magnitude information.
 The sign indicates whether a number is positive or
negative and the magnitude is the value of the number.
 There are three forms in which signed integer (whole)
numbers can be represented in binary:
 Sign-magnitude,
 1's complement, and
 2's complement.
 Of these, the 2's complement is the most important and
the sign-magnitude is rarely used.
44
 The Sign Bit
 The left-most bit in a signed binary number is the sign
bit, which tells you whether the number is positive or
negative.
 a 0 is for positive, and
 a 1 is for negative

45
 Sign-Magnitude Form
 When a signed binary number is represented in sign-
magnitude, the left-most bit is the sign bit and the remaining
bits are the magnitude bits.
 The magnitude bits are in true (uncomplemented) binary for
both positive and negative numbers.
 For example, the decimal number +25 is expressed as an 8-bit
signed binary number using the sign-magnitude form as:
00011001

Sign bit Magnitude bits

 The decimal number 25 is expressed as 10011001
 Notice that the only difference between +25 and -25 is the
sign bit because the magni­tude bits are in true binary for both
positive and negative numbers
 In the sign-magnitude form, a negative number has 46the
same magnitude bits as the corresponding positive
 1’s Complement Form
 In the 1’s complement form, a negative
number is the 1’s complement of the
corresponding positive number

47
 2’s Complement Form
 Negative numbers are the 2’s complements
of the corresponding positive numbers

48
 2.9 Signed Numbers-to-Decimal
 Sign-magnitude
 Sum the weights of all magnitude bit positions
 The sign is determined by the examination of the
sign bit
 1’s complement
 Assign a negative value to the weight of the sign bit
 Sum all the weights where there are 1s
 Add 1 to the result(if the number is negative)
 2’s complement
 Assign a negative value to the weight of the sign bit
 Sum all the weights where there are 1s 49
 Examples
 Sign-magnitude

 1’s complement

 2’s complement

50
 2’s Complement Arithmetic
 The 2's complement system is used to represent negative
numbers using modulus arithmetic.
 The word length of a computer is fixed.
 That means if a 4-bit number is added to another 4-bit
number, the result will be only of 4 bits. Carry, if any, from
the fourth bit will overflow.
 This is called the modulus arithmetic.
 For example: 1100 + 1111 = 1011.
 In the 2's complement subtraction, add the 2's complement
of the subtrahend to the minuend.
 If there is a carry out, ignore it. Look at the sign bit, i.e. MSB
of the sum term.
 If the MSB is a 0, the result is positive and is in true binary
form.
 If the MSB is a 1 (whether there is a carry or no carry at all)
the result is negative and is in its 2's complement form.
 Take its 2's complement to find its magnitude in binary. 51
 Cont…
Example: subtract 14 from 46 using the 8-bit 2’s
complement arithmetic.
Solution
+14 = 00001110
14 = 11110010 (in 2’s complement form)

+46 00101110
14  +11110010 (2’s complement form of14)
+32 100100000 (Ignore the carry)
 There is a carry, ignore it.
 The MSB is 0; so, the result is positive and is in
normal binary form.
 Therefore, the result is +00100000=+32 52
 Cont…
Example: add 75 to +26 using the 8-bit 2’s
complement arithmetic
Solution
+75 = 01001011
75 = 10110101 (in 2’s complement form)

+26 00011010
75  +10110101 (2’s complement form of -75)
49 11001111 (No carry)
 There is no carry, the MSB is a 1.
 So, the result is negative and is in 2’s complement
form.
 The magnitude is 2’s complement of 11001111, that
is, 00110001=49.
 Therefore, the result is 49. 53
 1’s Complement Arithmetic
 The 1's complement of a number is obtained by simply
complementing each bit of the number, that is, by changing all
the 0s to 1 s and all the 1 s to 0s.
 We can also say that the 1's complement of a number is obtained
by subtracting each bit of the number from l.
 This complemented value represents the negative of the original
number.
 This system is very easy to implement in hardware by simply
feeding all bits through inverters.
 One of the difficulties of using 1's complement is its
representation of zero.
 Both 00000000 and its 1's complement 11111111 represent zero.
 The 00000000 is called positive zero and the 11111111 is called
negative zero.
 In 1's complement subtraction, add the 1's complement of the
subtrahend to the minuend.
 If there is a carry out, bring the carry around and add it to the
LSB. This is called the end around carry. 54
 Cont…
Example: subtract 14 from 25 using the 8-bit 1’s
complement arithmetic
Solution
+25 00011001
14  +11110001 (1’s complement form of 14)
+11 100001010
+1 (Add the end around carry)
00001011 =+ 1110

55
 Cont…
Example: Add 25 to 14 using the 8-bit 1’s
complement method.
Solution
+14 00001110
25  +11100110 (1’s complement form of
25)
11 11110100 (No carry)
There is no carry, the MSB is a 1.
So, the result is negative and is in its 1’s
complement form.
The 1’s complement of 11110100 is 00001011.
The result is, therefore, 1110. 56
 Cont…
 The two numbers in addition are the addend
and the augend. The result is the sum. The 2’s
compliment will be used to represent negative
numbers.
 There are four cases that must be considered
when adding two numbers:

1. Both numbers positive

2. Positive number and smaller negative
number
3. Positive number and larger negative number
4. Both numbers negative

57
 Cont…
1. Both numbers positive:
 In this case, both sign bits are zero and a 2's compliment
is not required. To illustrate, we will add +7 and +4:
7 00000111
 4 00000100
11 00001011
2. Positive number and smaller negative number:
 In this case, the true binary form of the positive number is
added to the 2's complement of the negative number.
 The sign bits are included in the addition, and the result
will be positive. To illustrate we will add + 15 and -6:
15 00001111
+ -6 11111010
9 100001001
Discard carry
Notice that the sign of the sum is positive (0) as it should be.58
 Cont…
3. Positive number and larger negative number:
 Again, the true binary form of positive number is added
to the 2's complement of the negative number.
 The sign bits are included in the addition, and the result
will be negative. To illustrate will add + 16 and - 24:
16 00010000
+ -24 11101000 (2’s complement of -24)
-8 11111000 (2’s complement of -8)
 Notice that the result automatically comes out in 2's
complement because it is a negative number.
4. Both numbers negative:
 In this case, the 2's complements of both numbers added
and, of course, the sum is a negative number in 2's
complement form illustrate, we will add - 5 and -9:
-5 11111011 (2’s complement of -5)
+ -9 11110111 (2’s complement of -9)
-14 111110010 (2’s complement of -14) 59
Discard carry
 Overflow
When the number of bits in the sum exceeds the number of
bits in each of numbers added, overflow results, as
illustrated by the following example.

 The overflow condition can occur only when both

numbers are positive or both numbers are negative. An
overflow result is indicated by an incorrect sign bit.
60
 2.10 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
• BCD is a way to express each of the decimal
digits with a binary code.
• There are only 10 code groups in the BCD
system
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001

• Ex : 3510 = 0011 0101

61
 2.11 Digital Codes and Parity

• There are other specialized codes used in

digital systems  e.g. Gray code, ASCII
code
• Some codes are
– strictly numeric : e.g. BCD
– Alphanumeric – to represent numbers, letters,
symbols, instructions : e.g. ASCII

62
 Gray-to- Binary Code
 is not an arithmetic code
 Only one bit changes from one code to the next in the
sequence
 Gray code can be any amounts of bits.
 Below is example from Gray Code-to-Binary
 Eg : 1110 (Gray Code)

1 1 1 0

+ + +

1 0 1 1

= 10112

63
 Binary-to- Gray Code
 Below is example from Binary-to-Gray Code
 Eg : 11102

1 + 1 + 1 + 0

1 0 0 1

= 1001 (Gray Code)

64
DECIMAL BINARY GRAY CODE
0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
4 0100 0110
5 0101 0111
6 0110 0101
7 0111 0100
8 1000 1100
9 1001 1101
10 1010 1111
11 1011 1110
12 1100 1010
13 1101 1011
14 1110 1001
15 1111 1000 65
ASCII
 American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)
 It has 128 characters and symbols
represented in 7-bit binary code
 Example :
 A = 10000012;
 a = 11000012

66
  Kos ASCII : 10000012
ASCII Table
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

0000 NUL DLE SP 0 @ P ` p

0001 SOH DCI ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EOT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL

67
 Symbol Binary Hexadecimal
2 0110010 32

ASCII example: 0
Space
0110000
0100000
30
20
P 1010000 50
20 PRINT A=“X”; R 1010010 52
I 1001001 49
N 1001110 4E
T 1010100 54
Space 0100000 20
A 1000001 41
= 0111101 3D
10000012 = 0100 00012 “ 0100010 22
 4 116 X 1011000 3B
“ 0100010 22
; 0111011 3B

68
 Parity
• Parity bit used for bit error detection
– Even parity (0) – total number of 1s even
– Odd parity (1) – total number of 1s odd
• Example: (even parity)

Code transmitted: 00101

1’s total even; parity bit = 0
Code received: 00001
1’s total odd; parity bit = 0  error

69
 EVEN PARITY ODD PARITY

PARITY BCD PARITY BCD

BIT BIT
0 0000 1 0000
1 0001 0 0001
1 0010 0 0010
0 0011 1 0011
1 0100 0 0100
0 0101 1 0101
0 0110 1 0110

1 0111 0 0111
1 1000 0 1000
0 1001 1 1001

70
Try this. Fill in the appropriate parity bit.

Even Odd

1010 0 1

111000 1 0

101101 0 1

1000111001001 0 1

101101011111 1 0

71
THE END

72