Fundamental of Chemical Engineering

Course level: undergraduate

Course Code: ChEg2101
Credit hour: 5

Lecturer: bisrat yihun

Email: [email protected]
April, 2024
CHAPTER THREE
Process and Process Variables
Process
 A process is any operation or series of operations by which a particular objective is accomplished.
 The material that enters a process is referred to as the input or feed. and that which leaves is the output or
product.
 It is common for processes to consist of multiple steps, each of which is carried out in a process unit, and
each process unit has associated with it a set of input and output process streams.
 As a chemical engineer, you might be called upon to
 design or
 operate a process.
Design
 includes formulation of a process flowsheet (layout) as well as specification of individual process units (such
as reactors, separation equipment, heat exchangers) and
Operate a Process
 associated operating variables, and operation involves the day-to-day running of the process.
In this chapter we present:
 Definitions
 illustrative measurement techniques, and
 methods of calculating variables that characterize the operation of processes and individual process
units.
Mass and Volume
Specific Volume
 The specific volume of a substance is the volume occupied by a unit mass of the substance;
 it is the inverse of density.
Density(ρ)
 The density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of the substance (kg/m 3 , g/cm3, Ibm/ft3, etc.)

 The density of a substance can be used as a conversion factor to relate the mass and the
volume of a quantity of the substance.
 Densities of pure solids and liquids are essentially independent of pressure and vary relatively slightly with
temperature.
For Example,
The density of liquid water, increases from 0.999868 g/cm 3 at O°C to 1.00000 g/cm3 at 3.98°C, and then
decreases to 0.95838 g/cm3 at 100°C.
Specific Gravity
 The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the density ρ of the substance to the density ρref of a
reference substance at a specific condition:

 The reference most commonly used for solids and liquids is water at 4.0°C, which has the following density

 If you are given the specific gravity of a substance, multiply it by the reference density in
any units to get the density of the substance in the same units.
For example,
if the specific gravity of a liquid is 2.00, its density is 2.00 X 10 3 kg/m3 or 2.00 g/cm3 or 125 Ibm/ft3 .
Exercise 1
1. What are the units of specific gravity?
2. Calculate the density of mercury in Ibm/ft3 if the specific gravity of mercury at 20°C is 13.546, and
calculate the volume in ft3 occupied by 215 kg of mercury
FLOW RATE
 Most processes involve the movement of material from one point to another-sometimes between process units,
sometimes between a production facility and a transportation depot.
 The rate at which a material is transported through a process line is the flow rate of that material.

Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate

 The flow rate of a process stream may be expressed as
 a mass flow rate (mass/time) or
 as a volumetric flow rate (volume/time).
Suppose a fluid (gas or liquid) flows in the cylindrical pipe shown below, where the shaded area represents a
section perpendicular to the direction of flow.
 If the mass flow rate of the fluid is ṁ (kg/s), then every second m kilograms of the fluid pass through the cross
section.
 If the volumetric flow rate of the fluid at the given cross section is V(m3/s), then every second V cubic meters
of the fluid pass through the cross section.
 However, the mass m and the volume V of a fluid-in this case, the fluid that passes through the cross section
each second-are not independent quantities but are related through the fluid density, ρ:

Thus, the density of a fluid can be used to convert a known volumetric flow rate of a process stream to the mass
flow rate of that stream or vice versa.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
 Most materials encountered in nature and in chemical process systems are mixtures of various species.
 The physical properties of a mixture depend strongly on the mixture composition.
Moles and Molecular Weight
 The atomic weight of an element is the mass of an atom on a scale that assigns 12C a mass of exactly 12 .
 The molecular weight of a compound is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms that constitute a molecule of the compound:
For Example
Atomic oxygen (O) has an atomic weight of approximately 16, and therefore molecular oxygen (O2) has a molecular weight of
approximately 32.
 A gram-mole (g-mole, or mol in SI units) of a species is the amount of that species whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its
molecular weight.
 Other types of moles (e.g., kg-moles or kmol, lb-moles, ton-moles) are similarly defined.
For Example,
Carbon monoxide (CO), has a molecular weight of 28; 1 mol of CO therefore contains 28 g, lIb-mole
contains 28 Ibm, 1 ton-mole contains 28 tons, and so on.

If the molecular weight of a substance is M, then there are M kg/kmoL M g/mol, and M lbm/lb-mole of this substance.
 The molecular weight may thus be used as a conversion factor that relates the mass and the number of moles
of a quantity of the substance.
For example,
34 kg of ammonia (NH3 : M = 17) is equivalent to

and 4.0 Ib-moles of ammonia is equivalent to

The same factors used to convert masses from one unit to another may be used to convert the equivalent molar
units:
for example, there is 454 g/lbm and therefore there is 454 mol/lb-mole, regardless of the substance involved.
Note
One gram-mole of any species contains approximately 6.02 X 1023 (Avogadro's number) molecules of that
species.
Exercise 2
How many of each of the following are contained in 100.0 g of CO 2 (M = 44.01)? (1) mol CO2 ;
(2) lb-moles CO2; (3) mol C; (4) mol O; (5) mol O2; (6) g O; (7) g O2; (8) molecules of CO2
The molecular weight of a species can be used to relate the mass flow rate of a continuous stream of this
species to the corresponding molar flow rate.
For example, if carbon dioxide (CO2: M = 44.0) flows through a pipeline at a rate of 100 kg/h, the molar flow
rate of the CO2 is

If the output stream from a chemical reactor contains CO 2 flowing at a rate of 850 lb-moles/min, the
corresponding mass flow rate is
Mass and Mole Fractions
 Process streams occasionally contain one substance, but more often they consist of mixtures of liquids or
gases, or solutions of one or more solutes in a liquid solvent.
 The following terms may be used to define the composition of a mixture of substances, including a species A.

The percent by mass of A is 100xA, and the mole percent of A is 100yA .

 A set of mass fractions may be converted to an equivalent set of mole fractions by:
(a) assuming as a basis of calculation a mass of the mixture (e.g., 100 kg or 100 Ib m);
(b) using the known mass fractions to calculate the mass of each component in the basis quantity, and
converting these masses to moles; and
(c) taking the ratio of the moles of each component to the total number of moles.
An Analogous Procedure is followed:
 to convert mole fractions to mass fractions, differing only in that a total number of moles (e.g., 100 mol or
100 Ib-moles) is taken as a basis of calculation.
Consider
A mixture of gases has the following composition by mass:
CONCENTRATION
 The mass concentration of a component of a mixture or solution is the mass of this component per unit
volume of the mixture (g/cm3 , Ibm/ft3 , kg/in.3 , ... ).
 The molar concentration of a component is the number of moles of the component per unit volume of the
mixture (kmol/m3,Ib-moles/ft3, ... ).
 The molarity of a solution is the value of the molar concentration of the solute expressed in gram-moles
solute/liter solution (e.g., a 2-molar solution of A contains 2 mol A/liter solution).
 The concentration of a substance in a mixture or solution can be used as a conversion factor
 to relate the mass (or moles) of a component in a sample of the mixture to the sample volume, or
 to relate the mass (or molar) flow rate of a component of a continuous stream to the total volumetric flow
rate of the stream.
For Example
Consider, a 0.02-molar solution of NaOH (i.e., a solution containing 0.02 mol NaOH/L): 5 L of this solution
contains
Exercise 3
A 0.50-molar aqueous solution of sulfuric acid flows into a process unit at a rate of 1.25 m 3/min. The specific
gravity of the solution is 1.03. Calculate
1. the mass concentration of H2SO4 in kg/m3 ,
2. the mass flow rate of H2SO4 in kg/s, and
3. the mass fraction of H2SO4.
PRESSURE
 A pressure is the ratio of a force to the area on which the force acts.
 Accordingly, pressure units are force units divided by area units (e.g., N/m2, dynes/cm2 , and Ibf/in.2 or psi).
 The SI pressure unit, N/m2, is called a pascal (Pa).
a. Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head
Consider a fluid (gas or liquid) contained in a closed vessel or flowing through a pipe, and suppose that a hole of
area A is made in the wall of the containing vessel, as in Figure.

The fluid pressure may be defined as the ratio F/ A, where F is the minimum force that would
have to be exerted on a frictionless plug in the hole to keep the fluid from emerging.
We must introduce an additional definition of fluid pressure to explain the concept of atmospheric pressure
Suppose a vertical column of fluid is
 h (m) high and has a uniform cross-sectional area A(m2 )
 the fluid has a density of ρ(kg/m3 ), and
 a pressure Po(N/m2 ) is exerted on the upper surface of the column.

The pressure P of the fluid at the base of the column-called the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid-is, by
definition, the force F exerted on the base divided by the base area A. F thus equals the force on the top
surface plus the weight of the fluid in the column. It is not difficult to show that:

……………..(a)
PRESSURE HEAD
 In addition to being expressible as a force per unit area, a pressure may be expressed as a head of a particular
fluid-that is,
 as the height of a hypothetical column of this fluid that would exert the given pressure at its base if the
pressure at the top were zero.
 You can thus speak of a pressure of 14.7 psi or equivalently of a pressure (or head) of 33.9 ft of water
(33.9 ft H20) or 76 cm of mercury (76 cm Hg).

The equivalence between a pressure P (force/area) and the corresponding head Ph (height of a fluid) is
given by Equation (a) with Po = 0:
b. Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Gauge Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
 typical value of the atmospheric pressure at sea level, 760.0 mm Hg, has been designated as a standard
pressure of 1 atmosphere.
Absolute Pressure, and Gauge Pressure
 The fluid pressures referred to so far are all absolute pressures, in that a pressure of zero corresponds to a
perfect vacuum.
 Many pressure-measuring devices give the gauge pressure of a fluid, or the pressure relative to atmospheric
pressure.
 A gauge pressure of zero indicates that the absolute pressure of the fluid is equal to atmospheric pressure.
 The relationship for converting between absolute and gauge pressure is

The abbreviations psia and psig are commonly used to denote absolute and gauge pressure in
Ibf/in.2 .
TEMPERATURE
 The temperature of a substance in a particular state of aggregation (solid, liquid. or gas) is a measure of the
average kinetic energy possessed by the substance molecules.
 Temperature scales can be defined in terms of physical phenomena, such as freezing and boiling, that take
place at fixed temperatures and pressures.
 A defined temperature scale is obtained by arbitrarily assigning numerical values to two reproducibly
measurable temperatures;
For Example, assign a value of 0 to the freezing point of water and a value of 100 to the boiling point of water
at 1 atm.
 The two most common temperature scales are defined using the freezing point (Tf ) and boiling point (Tb ) of
water at a pressure of 1 atm.
Celsius (or centigrade) scale: Tf is assigned a value of 0°C, and Tb is assigned a value of 100°C.
Absolute zero (theoretically the lowest temperature attainable in nature) on this scale falls
at -273.15°C.
Fahrenheit scale: Tf is assigned a value of 32°F, and Tb is assigned a value of 212°F. Absolute
zero falls at -459.67°F.
The Kelvin and Rankine scales are defined such that absolute zero has a value of 0 and the size of a degree is the
same as a Celsius degree (Kelvin scale) or a Fahrenheit degree (Rankine scale).
The following relationships may be used to convert a temperature expressed in one defined
scale unit to its equivalent in another:
 A degree is both a temperature and a temperature intervaL. fact that sometimes leads to confusion.
Consider the temperature interval from 0°C to 5°C.

 There are nine Fahrenheit and nine Rankine degrees in this interval, and
 only five Celsius degrees and five Kelvin.
 An interval of 1 Celsius degree or Kelvin therefore contains 1.8 Fahrenheit or Rankine degrees. leading to
the conversion factors
Exercise: Temperature Conversion and Dimensional Homogeneity
The heat capacity of ammonia, defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass
of ammonia by precisely 1° at a constant pressure, is, over a limited temperature range, given by the
expression

Determine the expression for Cp in J/(g. °C) in terms of T(°C).

EN
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