CE364:Environmental Engineering

Week 4

Topics:
- Physical, chemical characteristics
of water

Dr. N.Premananda Singh, Civil Engineering, MIT Imphal

Email: [email protected]
 Water pollution
• Water pollution is an undesirable change in
the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of water that may harmful to
human, animal and plant life

• Presence of impurity in water in such

quantity and of such nature as to impair the
use of water for a stated purpose

2
 Genesis
• Water contains impurities – of natural origin, i.e.
– Presence of calcium and magnesium ions (Ca2+ and
Mg2+) from soil and underground rocks
• Water also contains contaminants – of
anthropogenic origin, e.g.
– Nitrogen compounds of NH4, NO2-, NO3- from
agricultural fertilizers, sewage and industrial
wastewaters, etc.
– Organic compounds are added
• The acceptability of water depends on its physical,
chemical and biological properties and in modifying
these properties for defined use of water 3
 Water quality
• Quality is judged as the degree to which water
conforms to physical, chemical and biological
properties.
• It is important to know the water quality to
– Determine whether treatment of the raw water is
must
– If so, what treatment methods to be used to achieve
the desired quality
• Water quality is evaluated in terms of its
PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, & BIOLOGICAL properties
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 Physical parameters – describes Physical
Characteristics
The physical characteristics of water responds to
the senses of sight, touch, taste, or smell.
• Solids (organic – sewage or inorganic – clay, silt)
• Turbidity
• Color (significant in drinking water)
• Odor (significant in drinking water)
• Taste (significant in drinking water)
• Temperature
• Conductivity
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 The composition of domestic sewage
Domestic sewage

0.1% solids
99.9% water
(TSS)

70% organic 30% inorganic

Grit Salt Metal

Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Amino acids Vitamins
(60%) (25%) (8%) (4%) (3%)
from animals, starch, glucose, esters, esters, pesticides,
plant food cellulose, glycerol glycerol surfactant
grease grease hydrocarbons

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 Solids
• Organic particles: –
– mostly found in wastewater
– Originates from sewage, other wastewater
– Biological solids (algal cells, bacteria, plants fiber) are
more common in wastewater
• Inorganic particles: –
– mostly found in water
– Originates from clay, silt, soil
– Constituents are common in surface water

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 Type of wastewater – different nature of
solids
• Domestic waste water - contains large quantity
of organic suspended solids
• Industrial waste water - contains impurities that
are both organic and inorganic nature
• Immiscible liquids – oil, grease in waste water.

• In drinking or river water samples – it is

desirable to know the fractions of solids that
are suspended and those are dissolved
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 Solids
• Suspended, colloidal, dissolved – 3 forms
• Settleable, non-settleable
• Filterable, non-filterable
• Volatile, non-volatile

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 Solids
• Suspended, colloidal, dissolved – 3 forms
• Settleable, non-settleable
• Filterable, non-filterable
• Volatile, non-volatile

Non-settleable Settleable

Size of particle in mm

(filterable) (non-filterable)
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 Solids annotated in the following ways
• Total solids (TS) – the material residue left in the
dish after evaporation of a sample at 105 oC. –
Suspended, colloidal, dissolved; Settleable, non-settleable;
Filterable, non-filterable; Organic, inorganic; Volatile, non-volatile
– Let us take x mL of sample in a dish (generally
we use ceramic dish)
– Take the weight of the dish, say W1 (mg)
– After evaporation, the weight (dried residue +
dish) is, say W2 (mg)
– Total solids = (W2 – W1)*1000/x mL of sample
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• Total solids include:-
• Total suspended solids (TSS) – the portion of the total
solids retained by a membrane filter of pore size 2 µm.
They can be removed by settling.
• Total dissolved solids (TDS) - the portion of the solids
that passes through a filter of 2 µm nominal pore size
under specified conditions.
TDS = TS - TSS
• Settleable solids – the term applied to the material
settling out of suspension within the defined period.
Almost 60% of the total organics are in settleable form.
• This is done with the help of imhoff cone in which solids
are allowed to settle for an hour.
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Imhoff cone for determining settleable fraction
of solids in ww

wastewater

1000 mL

Transparent 1000 mL imhoff cone

(with graduated marks)
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Imhoff cone for determining settleable fraction
of solids in ww

Conical glass vessel

wastewater Suspended
solids
1000 mL Settled
in 1-h
Settled solids
fraction –
(Suspended)
mL/L
Transparent 1000 mL imhoff cone
(with graduated marks)
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 Solids annotated in the following ways
• Colloidal-suspended fractions – are difficult to be
removed from the wastewater
• It is defined as very small, finely divided solids
(do not dissolve) that remain dispersed in the
wastewater for a long time due to their small size
and electrical charge.
• These particles have negligible settling velocity
• Filterable solids – a combination of colloidal and
dissolved fraction of solids
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 Fixed and volatile fractions of solids
• Total fixed solids (TFS) – if the residue of solids
fractions are gasified at constant 550 oC, then the
remaining solids represent the fixed solids (FS) or
fixed suspended solids (FSS) or fixed dissolved
solids (FDS)
• Volatile solids (VS) – the weight loss on gasification
at 550 oC temperature is called the volatile solids
• Accordingly, we can define:-
– Total volatile solids (TVS)
– Volatile suspended solids (VSS)
– Volatile dissolved solids (VDS)
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• Impacts –
• affects the solubility of gases in water, causing
water more vulnerable to chemical and biological
changes
• aesthetically displeasing and provides adsorption
sites for chemical and biological agents
• suspended organic solids may be degraded
biologically, resulting in objectionable by-products
• biologically active suspended solids may include
disease causing organism such as algae which may
produce toxin
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 Turbidity
• Turbidity: is a measure of extent to which light is
either absorbed or scattered by suspended
materials in water
– It is due to colloidal particles
– Water with enough suspended clay particles will be
visually turbid
– Caused by colloidal material such as clay, silt, rock
fragment and metal oxides from the soils
– Vegetable fibers and microorganisms may also
contribute to turbidity
– Soaps, detergents and emulsifying agents produce
stable colloids that result in turbidity 18
• Impacts –
• the presence of colloidal materials
associate with pathogens because of its
adsorptive characteristics
• excess turbidity decreases the
disinfection efficiency

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 Turbidity measurement
• Is measured with the nephelometric turbidity
meter in NTU unit
• It works on light scattering principle (90 degree)

Light source

Scattering

• The amount of light scattered – gives the

measurement of turbidity
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 Conductivity
• Conductivity:
– Is a measure of the ability of an aqueous solution to
carry an electric current
– The electricity is conducted in the solution by the
movement of ions
– The higher the ions – more will be the conductivity
– Used indirectly to find out the dissolved inorganic
solids
– Inorganic solids dissociate into ions
– Depends on the type of solids (e.g. whether glucose
or sodium chloride, e.g. pure water or sea water)
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• In laboratory - conductivity is measured by
placing a conductivity meter (made up of two
electrodes) in a water sample and recording
the electrical resistance
• Conductivity is more important in water than
in wastewater
• Because wastewater contains mostly organic
matter more which dissociates little
• The conductivity is approximated by Snoeyink
and Jenkins equation:
µ = 2.5 x 10-5 x TDS(mg/L)
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 Taste and Odor
• Taste and Odor:
– Caused by volatile chemicals
– Presence of minerals
– Decomposition of organic matter
– Gases like CO2, H2S, CH4 are dissolved
– Due to lack of sufficient oxygen
• Substances that produce an odor also imparts taste to water,
however, most minerals produce taste and no odor
• Impact – taste and odor in water aesthetically
displeasing for use

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 Odor determination
• The perception of odor and its intensity varies
person to person depending upon the intensity
of the odorous compounds
• Therefore it is usually represented as threshold
odor number (TON)
• Take odorous sample, say A mL
• Dilute it with odorless water, say B mL till it
becomes odorless
• For example, A + B = 200 mL, in which
• Take 50 mL of odorous sample and dilute it by
adding 150 mL of odorless (distilled) water 24
 Odor determination
• The threshold odor number (TON)
TON = (A + B)/A
TON = (50+150)/50 = 4

• Therefore, the more dilution means more

TON - means more odorous sample
• For water, it is recommended to be about
3.
25
 Temperature
• Temperature: in general, not used to evaluate
water quality
– it governs the biological reactions
– It has effect on many chemical reactions as well
– the desirable temperature is 10 – 20 oC
– above 25 oC, biological reactions intensify
• Impact – it affects the solubility of gases in
water, causing water more vulnerable to
chemical and biological changes

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 Color
• Pure water is colorless but often in nature the presence of
foreign substances impart color to water and colored waste
from industries, and fine particles of organic nature
– Suspended matter imparts apparent color and dissolved
solids imparts true color
– Gray color:- non-septic sewage (all waters except from
toilets) and Black color:- septic sewage (toilet waste)
• Contact with organic debris – leaf, weed, or wood – picks up
tannin
• Humic acid - yellowish color
• Iron oxide – reddish color
• Manganese – brown or blackish color
• Excessive algal growth - green 27
• Impacts –
• Colored water is not aesthetically acceptable
to the general public.
• Highly colored water is unsuitable for
laundering, dyeing, paper making, food
processing, etc.
• It can be determined by diluting the sample and
comparing it with a standard color scale to know
the true color limit

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Physical parameters used in WWT system
(that describe various physical characteristics)
Parameters Use
Taste and odor Indicates that anaerobic treatment is
required
Color Indicates conditions of wastewater –
fresh or septic
Turbidity Indicates effluent quality
Temperature Required in the design and operation of
biological treatment processes
Suspended solids Design and operation of treatment
processes
Conductivity Indicates the suitability of UV
disinfection
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Chemical Characteristics of Water

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 Chemical Water-Quality Characteristics
• Natural or industrial origin

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 Chemical Water-Quality Characteristics
• Natural or industrial origin
• May be beneficial or harmful depending upon
their compositions and concentrations

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 Chemical Water-Quality Characteristics
• Natural or industrial origin
• May be beneficial or harmful depending upon
their compositions and concentrations
– e.g. a small amount of iron and manganese cause
color
– can be further oxidized to form deposits of ferric
hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) and manganese oxide (Mn3+) in
water mains and industrial equipments
– They reduce the capacity of pipes and expensive to
remove

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 Chemical Water Quality Characteristics
• The following chemical characteristics of water which
changes the chemical properties of water; they are
organic and inorganic in nature:
• Inorganic chemical characteristics:
– Major ions:- Cations like Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium,
Potassium and Anions bicarbonate, Sulfate, Chloride,
Nitrate
– Minor ions:- Anions like Aluminum, Ammonium, Arsenic,
Barium, Copper, Iron, Manganese
– Silica, SiO2 (non-ionic mineral)
– Nutrients:- phosphorous and nitrogen
– Gross chemical properties of water:- pH, Alkalinity,
Acidity, and Hardness 34
• Organic chemical characteristics:
– Naturally occurring substances:-
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Carbohydrates
• Plant pigments
– Anthropogenic (human made) substances:-
• Pesticides and agrochemicals – DDT, Aldrin, parathion, and
other organic phosphates, herbicides and fungicides
• Surface active agents
• Halogenated hydrocarbons
• Carboxylic acids and esters

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 Determination of Chemical (organic)
Characteristics

• To measure the overall concentration of

organic content a non-specific tests are
carried out:
– BOD (biochemical oxygen demand by micro
organisms – bacteria, protozoa, algae, fungi,
etc.)
– COD (Chemical oxygen demand by chemicals)
– TOC (Total organic carbon by an instrument)
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 Nutrients – nitrogen and phosphorus
• Essential nutrients for plant and organism growth
• But in excess quantity, they can be undesirable – lead to
eutrophication - meaning excessive growth of algae in
water bodies
• The excessive growth of algae prevents the penetration
of sunlight to the water – imbalance the dissolved
oxygen and thus affecting the growth of aquatic
organism
• If excess amount of algae putrefy – cause of change of
water characteristics – so high algal growth is a problem
• If we use reservoir stored water where algal growth is
high – might require higher chemical dose for treatment
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 Nitrogen and its compounds
• Present as free ammonia, nitrite and nitrate
– generally comes from animal waste,
fertilizer industry, domestic wastewater
discharges

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 Nitrogen and its compounds
• Impacts –
• Organic nitrogen and ammonia are converted to
nitrite and nitrate by the action of a group of
microorganisms – called nitrifiers

Org N  NH3-N  NO2- and NO3-

(Nitrifiers)

• These can be used as indicators to know whether the

pollution is fresh or polluted for long time

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• Free ammonia (NH3) – indicates first stage decomposition of
nitrogenous organic matter
• Nitrites (NO2-) – due to oxidation of ammonia (incomplete
decomposition)
• Nitrates (NO3-) – end product of decomposition of organic
matter (complete decomposition)

Nitrosomanas Nitrobactors

NH3  NO2-  NO3-

+ O2 + O2

• Oxidation of NH3 to NO3- is called Nitrification (naturally

happens with time)

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 Health impacts
• High concentration of nitrate in water is a
cause of BLUE BABY DISEASE
• It has affinity with the blood – reduce
hemoglobin content of the blood – to
develop blue color
• Baby’s intestine – alkaline condition –
conducive for nitrates to combine with
hemoglobin
• Adults – have acidic condition so pose no
problem 41
 Phosphorus and phosphate
• Does not demand for oxygen so there is no
depletion of oxygen
• But it may still cause eutrophication by
allowing more algal growth
• Types – organic phosphates,
polyphosphates are the main compounds of
phosphorus

42
 Hardness
• caused by multivalent metallic ions mainly divalent
metallic ions
• e.g. calcium and magnesium
• It cause the scale formation in water distribution
system
• How – these cations react with other ions present
in water to form scale in boilers
• The ion causing hardness have their origin in soil
and geological formations
• Hardness is a water parameter used in potable
water (not wastewater) 43
 Hardness
• The characteristics which prevents the formation
of foam/lather.
• It comprises of two components:
– Bicarbonates of Ca and Mg – precipitates as insoluble
carbonates when CO2 is driven off by boiling – is called
temporary or carbonate hardness
– Compounds of sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates of Ca
and Mg – not removed by boiling – is called
permanent hardness or non-bicarbonate hardness
• Impacts - it produces scales in water pipes
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 pH
• a measure of acidity/alkalinity in water
– It is caused by mineral acids, free CO2,
– It is also caused by sulfates of iron and
aluminum
• Impacts - it produces scales in water pipes

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 Alkalinity
• a measure of quantity of ions in water that
neutralizes hydrogen ions (capacity of
neutralizing acid)
– It is caused by hydroxides (OH-) or
bicarbonates (HCO3-)
– It is also caused by sulfates of iron and
aluminum
• Impacts – at high pH (> 10) causes bleeding of
tongues, as it contains high caustic – highly
corrosive 46
 Chlorides
• a measure of salts quantity resulting from
the combination of chlorine gas with light
metals – e.g. NaCl, MgCl2
– Sewage effluent
– Industrial effluent
– Sea water infiltration
• Impacts – imparts taste and corrosion

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 Fluorides
• a compound containing fluorine and
another element or radicals
– generally associated in nature with a few
types of sedimentary and igneous rocks –
found in groundwater more than surface
water
• Impacts –
• in small concentration, is helpful because it prevents dental
cavities in children
• in excessive concentration, is harmful because it causes
mottling of teeth 48
 Metals
• all metals are soluble in water
– In excess quantity cause hazards
Toxic: only those metals are harmful
- Can be added from mining, industry, and
agricultural
- Dissolution from natural deposits, discharges of
domestic, industrial or agriculture wastewaters
- e.g. arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead,
mercury – very hazardous
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 Non-toxic
• In addition to the hardness ions of Ca and
Mg, other non-toxic metals are commonly
found
– e.g. sodium, iron, manganese, aluminum, copper,
zinc
• Sodium – in abundant from earth crust and
cause bitter taste in water
• Bacteria use iron and manganese as energy
source and thus grow in number – may
cause taste and odor in water
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