course: renewable ENERGY

sources Course
code:betck205e

2nd Semester

Course Coordinator: Prof. Renuka R.Thakai

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

S.G.Balekundri Institute of Technology, Belagavi 1
1 2
Subject: renewable ENERGY
sources VTU –
betck205e
2nd Semester
Course Coordinator: Prof. Renuka R.Thakai
MODULE -2
SOLAR ENERGY

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

S.G.Balekundri Institute of Technology, Belagavi
1 2
Environmental impacts of solar energy:
 Every energy generation and transmission method affects the
environment.
 As it is obvious conventional generating options can damage air,
climate, water, land and wildlife, landscape, as well as raise the levels of
harmful radiation.
 Renewable technologies are substantially safer offering a solution to
many environmental and social problems associated with fossil and
nuclear fuels.
 Solar energy technologies (SETs) provide obvious environmental
advantages in comparison to the conventional energy sources, thus
contributing to the sustainable development of human activities
 Not counting the depletion of the exhausted natural resources, their main
advantage is related to the reduced CO2 emissions.
 Normally, absence of any air emissions or waste products during their
operation.
 Concerning the environment, the use of SETs has additional positive
implications such as:
 Reduction of the emissions of the greenhouse gases (mainly CO2,NO x)
and prevention of toxic Gas emissions (SO2,particulates) .
 Reclamation of degraded land;
The application of solar energy is
1. Heating and cooling residential buildings
2. Solar water heating
3. Solar drying of agricultural and chemical products.
4. Solar distillation of a small community scale
5. Salt production by evaporation of seawater
6. Solar cookers
7. Solar engines for water pumping
8. Food refrigeration
9. Bio conversion and wind energy and which are indirectsource of
solarenergy
10.Solarfurnaces
11. Solar electric power generation by
i) Solar ponds
ii) Steam generators heated by rotating reflectors
iii) reflectors with lenses and pipes for fluid circulation
12. solar photovoltaic cells which can be used for conversion of solar energy
directly into electricity (or) for water pumping in rural agriculture purposes.
 Solar Radiation
Solar energy, received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or
indirectly in to other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity.
The major draw backs of the extensive application of solar energy of
1. the intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the earth’s
surface
2. the large area require to collect the energy at a usefulrate.
Energy is radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99% have
wave lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4.0 micro meter (1 micro meter = 10-6
meter)
Solar energy reaching the top of the earth’s atmosphere consists of about
 8% ultra violet radiation [short wave length >0.39micrometer]
 46% visible light [0.39 to 0.78micrometer]
 46 % infrared [0.78 micro meter above]
 Solar constant
 The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by
various kinds of fusion reactions.
 Its diameter is 1.39 X 106 km while that of earth is 1.27 X 104 km.
 The mean distance between the two is 1.5 X 108 km.
 The brightness of the sun varies from its center to its edge.
 However the calculation purpose the brightness all over the solar disc
is uniform.
 The total radiation from the sun is 5762 degrees K
 The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is
called the solar constant Isc .
 This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area
perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean distance of the earth
from the sun.
 The solar constant value varies up to 3 % throughout the year, because
the distance between the sun and the earth varies little throughout the
year.
 The earth is close set of the sun during the summer and farthest during
the winter.
 SOLAR RADIATION

 Measurements for solar radiation are higher on clear, sunny days and
usually low on cloudy days.
 In case of Sun being down, or when there are heavy clouds blocking
the sun, solar radiation is measured at zero.
 Energy from the Sun can be trapped and used for various
applications like cooking, water heating, lighting, in power plants,
and much more.
SOLAR RADIATION AT THE EARTH'S SURFACE

 From the point of view of utilization of solar energy we are more

interested in the energy received at the earth's surface than in the
energy.
 Solar radiation received at the surface of the earth is entirely different
due to various reasons.
 The solar radiation that penetrates the earth's atmosphere and
reaches the surface differs in both amount and character from the
radiation at the top of the atmosphere.
 In the first place, part of the radiation is reflected back into space,
especially by clouds.
 Furthermore, the radiation entering the atmosphere is partly
absorbed by molecules in the air.
• Oxygen and ozone (Og), formed from oxygen, absorb nearly all the
ultraviolet radiation.
• Water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some of the energy in the
infrared range.
 In addition, part of the solar radiation is scattered (i.e., its direction
has been changed) by droplets in clouds, by atmospheric molecules,
and by dust particles.
 Beam radiation: Solar radiation
that has not been absorbed or
scattered and reaches the ground
directly from the sun is called "direct
radiation" or Beam radiation. It is
the radiation which produces a
shadow when interrupted by an
opaque object.

 Diffuse radiation: It is solar radiation received from the sun after its
direction has been changed by reflection and scattering by the
atmosphere. Because the solar radiation is scattered in all directions in
the atmosphere, diffuse radiation comes to the earth from all parts of
the sky.

 The total solar radiation received at any point on the earth's surface is
the sum of the direct and diffuse radiation.
This is referred as insolation at that point.
The insolation is defined as the total solar radiation energy
received on a horizontal surface of unit area on the ground in
the unit time.
The insolation at a given location on earth’s surface depends on
the altitude of the sun in the sky.
The altitude is the angle between the sun’s direction and the
horizontal.
Sun’s altitude changes with date and time of the day.
 EARTH-SUN ANGLES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS
1. Hour Angle (w):
 The hour angle is the angular distance between the meridian of the
observer and the meridian whose plane contains the sun.
 The hour angle increases by 15° every hour.
 An expression to calculate the hour angle from solar time is,

Where, ts is the solar time in hours.

 Hour angle (w) can be calculated simply as follows:
Since the earth makes one revolution on its axis in 24 h, then 15
minutes will be equal to 15/60 = 1/4 min
Therefore,

Where, tm is the time in minutes after local solar noon.

w will be +ve if solar time is after solar noon. However, w will be −ve if
solar time is before solar noon
 EARTH-SUN ANGLES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS
2. Declination Angle (d ) :
 The declination angle (d ) of the sun is the angle between the rays of
the sun and the plane of the earth’s equator.
 It is positive when measured
above equatorial plane in the
northern hemisphere.
 The declination d can be approximately determined from the equation:

where n is day of the year counted from 1st January.

3. Latitude (Angle of Latitude), :
 The latitude of a location on earth’s surface is the angle made by radial
line, joining the given location to the center of the
earth, with its projection on the equator plane.
 The latitude is positive for northern hemisphere
and negative for southern hemisphere.
4. Inclination Angle (Altitude),
 The angle between sun’s ray and its
projection on horizontal surface is known as
inclination angle,
5. Zenith Angle,
 It is the angle between sun’s ray and
perpendicular (normal) to the horizontal plane.
6. Solar Azimuth Angle
 It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between the
line due south and the projection of sun’s ray on the horizontal plane.
 It is taken as +ve when measured from south towards west.
Solar Radiation Measurement:
Pyrheliometer
 The pyrheliometer is one type of instrument, used to measure the direct
beam of solar radiation at the regular occurrence.
 This instrument is used with a tracking mechanism to follow the sun
continuously.
 It is responsive to wavelengths bands that range from 280 nm to 3000
nm.
 The units of irradiance are W/m².
 These instruments are specially used for weather monitoring &
climatological research purposes.
 The circuit diagram of the pyrheliometer is shown below.
 It includes two equal strips specified with two strips S1 & S2 with area
‘A’.
 Here, a thermocouple is used where its one junction can be connected
to S1 whereas the other is connected to S2.
 A responsive galvanometer can be connected to the thermocouple.
The S2 Strip is connected to an exterior electrical circuit.
 Once both the strips are protected from the radiation of solar, then
the galvanometer illustrates there is no deflection because both the
junctions are at equal temperature.
 Now ‘S1’ strip is exposed to the solar radiation & S2 is protected
with a cover like M. When S1 strip gets heat radiations from the
sun, then strip temperature will be increased, thus the
galvanometer illustrates deflection.
 When current is supplied throughout the S2 strip, then it is
adjusted and the galvanometer illustrates there is no deflection.
Now, again both the strips are at equal temperature.
 If the heat radiation amount occurred over the unit area within the
unit time on S1 strip is ‘Q’ & its absorption co-efficient (a) , so the
heat radiation amount which is absorbed through the S1 strip S1
within unit time is ‘QAa’. In addition, the heat generated in unit
time within the S2 strip can be given through VI.
Here, ‘V’ is the potential difference & ‘I’ is the flow of current
through it. When heat absorbed is equivalent to the heat
generated, so
QAa = VI
Q=VI/Aa
By substituting the values of V, I, A and a, the value of ‘Q’ can
be calculated.
Pyranometer:
A type of actinometer used to measure irradiance of solar energy
within the preferred location as well as flux density of solar radiation.
The range of solar radiation extends between 300 & 2800 nm. The SI
units of irradiance are W/m² (watts /square meter). Usually, these are
used in the fields of researches like climatological & weather
monitoring, but current attention is showing interest in pyranometers
for solar energy worldwide.
Thermopile
As the name implies, it uses a thermocouple used to notice
dissimilarity in temperature between two surfaces. These are hot
(labeled active) and cold (reference) accordingly. The labeled active
surface is a black surface in flat shape and it is exposed to the
atmosphere. The reference surface depends on the difficulty of the
pyranometer because it changes from a second control thermopile to
the covering of the pyranometer itself.
Glass Dome
Glass dome in the pyrometer limits the response of spectral from 300
nm to 2800 nm from 180 degrees of view. It also protects the
thermopile sensor from rain, wind, etc. This construction of the
second dome gives extra radiation protection among the inner dome
& sensor compared to a single dome because a second dome will
reduce the instrument offset.
Occultation Disc The occultation disc is mainly used to measure the
radiation of blocking beam & diffuse radiation from the panel surface.
Pyranometer Working Principle
 The working principle of the pyranometer mainly depends on the
difference in temperature measurement between two surfaces like
dark and clear.
 The solar radiation can be absorbed by the black surface on the
thermopile whereas the clear surface reproduces it, so less heat can
be absorbed.
 The thermopile plays a key role in measuring the difference in
temperature.
 The potential difference formed within the thermopile is due to the
gradient of temperature between the two surfaces.
 These are used to measure the sum of solar radiation.
 But, the voltage which is generated from the thermopile is
calculated with the help of a potentiometer.
 The information of radiation needs to be included through
planimetry or an electronic integrator.
Sunshine recorder: This instrument measures the duration in
hours of bright sunshine during the course of a day
Construction: It essentially consists of a glass sphere
(about 10 cm in diameter) mounted on its axis parallel to that
of the earth, within a spherical section (bowl).
The bowl and glass sphere are arranged in such a way that
the sun's rays are focused sharply at a spot on a card held in a
groove in the bowl.
The card is prepared from a special paper bearing a time
scale. As the sun moves, the focused bright sunshine burns a
path along this paper.
The length of the trace thus obtained on the paper is the
measure of the duration of the bright sunshine. Three
overlapping pairs of grooves are provided in the spherical
segment to take care of the different seasons of the year.
Solar Thermal Collectors
A device used for collecting solar radiation and
transferring the energy to a fluid passing in contact with it.

Solar flat plate collector

 A flat plate collector is a type of solar thermal
collector that consists of a flat metal plate with
a dark coating that absorbs solar radiation.
 The plate is attached to a network of pipes that
carry a fluid, usually water or antifreeze, that
transfers the heat from the plate to a storage
tank or a heat exchanger.
 The plate and the pipes are enclosed in an
insulated box with a transparent cover that
reduces heat loss and protects the collector
from weather and dust.
 Solar radiation falls on the heat-absorbing plate of the
collector.
 When incident solar radiation hits the absorbing plate
surface, part of its energy is converted into heat.
Consequently, the temperature of the solar collector
increases.
 If we pass a fluid inside the collector, the fluid temperature
rises because part of the absorbing plate heat is transferred
to the liquid.
 However, the rest of the energy is still lost in radiation to the
outside environment. The fluid transports the heat from the
collector to heat exchangers to supply the energy system.
 To obtain good performance of this type of
solar thermal collector and reduce energy consumption, we
must work the collectors at the lowest possible temperature.
 Solar Thermal Electric System
System which converts solar energy into electrical energy by utilizing the
thermal energy of solar radiation.
SOLAR DISTILLATION
 The transparent glass (or plastic) cover allows the sunlight to
enter the still warming the dirty water below in the basin or pan.
 This warming of the water causes it to evaporate trapping inside
the still as water vapour.
 This hot, moisture-laden air rises up to the slanting glass sheet
and then condenses on the underside of the glass (which is
cooled by the outside ambient air) leaving the dirty salts,
minerals and contaminants behind in the pan.
 As the transparent glass (or plastic) cover is tilted at a gently
angle of about 10 to 20 degrees, the condensed water droplets
that form on the underside of the glass cover collect together
forming larger water droplets which get heavier as they grow and
roll down the sloped glass cover into a collector tube or trough at
the bottom to drain away the distillate.
 The clean and condensed distilled water can be collected into a clean
container for storage, thus producing perfectly clean water for a range of
uses as the dirt and contaminants are left behind in the still, which should
be flushed and clean regularly.
 Then the production of drinkable solar still water from the natural process
of solar distillation that uses the sun’s free and abundant solar thermal
energy to heat and evaporate water in a natural way by mimicking the
Earth’s hydrologic cycle to produce a continuous cycle of heating and
cooling.
Solar Cell Principles:
 The photo voltaic effect is defined as the generation of an
electromotive force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation.
 The direct conversion of solar energy into electricity by means of
photovoltaic effect .
 Energy conversion devices which are used to convert sunlight to
electricity by the use of photovoltaic effect asre called solar cells or
photovoltaic cells.
 Combination of such cells is called solar module or solar array.
 Photovoltaic cells are made up of semiconductors that generate
electricity when they absorb light.
 When the photons from the sun are absorbed in a semiconductor , they
create free electrons with higher energies than the electrons.
 Once these electrons are created ,there must be an electric field to
induce these higher energy electrons to flow out of the semiconductor
to do useful work.
To obtain a useful power output from photon interaction in a semiconductor ,
three processes are required.
 The photons have to be absorbed in the active part of the material
 The electron hole charge carrier created by the absorption must be physically
separated.
 The charge carriers must be removed from the cell and delivered to a useful
load.
 In its crystalline state, a silicon atom forms covalent bonds with four
neighbouring atoms.
 Addition of traces of an element such as arsenic, or phosphorus, or antimony
that contain one more electron than the silicon i.e., five valence electrons,
renders the silicon conductive.
 Four of the five electrons complete covalent bonds with adjacent silicon
atoms. The fifth, or the excess electron, at room temperature, has sufficient
energy to become a free electron which will be negatively charged.
 The conduction in silicon which is added with materials such as arsenic or
phosphorus is affected by such negative free electrons. The silicon with
added materials such as arsenic or phosphorus is called n-type silicon.
 The addition of elements such as boron or gallium to
silicon reduces the number of valence electrons in the atom
to three, i.e., one less than in the silicon.
 This type of atom has insufficient valence electrons to
complete four valence bonds. The incomplete bond results
in a vacancy or hole.
 The hole acts as positive charge and makes the silicon
conductive.
 The silicon with added materials such as boron is called p-
type silicon.
 A semiconductor device is made either from p-type or n-
type base material into which one or more impurities of the
positive polarity are introduced to form p-n-layers.
 The interface between the layers having opposite polarity is called p-n
junction. In a p-n junction, free electrons from n-side tend to diffuse into
p-side where they readily recombine because of the very large hole
concentration.
 Similarly all holes from the p-side of the junction tend to diffuse into n-
side of the region and rapidly combine with numerous free electrons.
 Free electrons moving from n-side to p-side leave a net positive charge
behind in the n-side of the junction, while migrating hole from p-side to n-
side leave a negative charge on the p-side of the junction.
 This charge distribution near the junction gives rise to an electric field and
hence a potential difference across the junction.
 This electric field originates mainly due to the chemical difference in the
material on the two sides of the junction.
Working:
 When a p-n junction of a semiconductor is exposed to
sunlight some of the solar photons are absorbed in the
vicinity of the p-n junction.
 The photons absorbed at the p-n junction will have high
energy to dislodge an electron from the fixed position in
the material and give it enough energy to move freely in
the material.
 The electron evicted from its customary bond can travel
through the entire crystalline solid and is capable of
responding to electric fields and other influences.
 The bond from which the electron was ejected is short of
one electron creating a hole which is also mobile.
 Thus the ejected free electron and the hole form an
electron-hole pair.
 The electrons and the holes being of opposite charge will
be pushed in different directions by the electric field which
already exists in the vicinity of the junction if they come
into the region near the p-n junction.
 The permanent electric field which was built-in near the p-
n junction pushes the hole into the p-region and the
electron into the n-region.
 Thus the p-region becomes positively charged and the n-
region becomes negatively charged.
 If an external load is applied, this charge difference will
drive a current through it. The current will flow so long as
the sunlight keeps generating the electron-hole pairs.
Construction:
 This p-n junction is obtained by putting p-type base material into
diffusion furnace containing gaseous n-type dopant such as
phosphorus and allowing n-dopant to diffuse into the surface about
0.2micro meter.
 The junction is thus formed slightly below the planar surface of the
cell and light impinges perpendicular to the junction.
 The positive and negative charges created by the absorption of
photons are encouraged to drift to the front and back of the solar
cell.
 The back is completely covered by metallic contact to remove the
charges to the electric load.
 The collection of charges from the front of the cell is by fine grid of
narrow metallic fingers.
 An antireflective coating is applied on the top of the cell.
 Main Components of Photovoltaic System

 Photovoltaic cell: Thin squares, discs, or films of semiconductor

material that generate voltage and current when exposed to
sunlight.
 Module: Photovoltaic cells wired together and laminated
between a clear strait glazing and encapsulating substrate.
 Array: One or more modules with mounting hardware and
wired together at specific voltage.
 A Blocking Diode: It lets the array generated power flow only
towards the battery or grid.
 Charge controller: Power-conditioning equipment to regulate battery
voltage.
 Battery storage: A medium that stores direct current (DC) electrical
energy.
 Inverter: An electrical device that changes direct current to
alternating current (AC)
 operate loads that require alternating current.
 DC loads: Appliances, motors, and equipment powered by DC.
 AC loads: Appliances, motors, and equipment powered by AC.