Syntax: The analysis of

sentence structure

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Definition of Syntax
• Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are
combined to form sentences in a language.
• *garden the
• *Children are
• *Work in

• This class: what syntactic structure is and what the rules that
determine syntactic structure are like.

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• Properties of syntactic knowledge:

• Humans can understand & produce an infinite number of

sentences they never heard before
• “Some purple gnats are starting to tango on microwave”

• Our grammar can understand and produce long sentences

• “Bill said that he thought that the esteemed leader of the house had it in
mind to tell the unfortunate vice president that the calls that he made
from the office in the White House that he thought was private…..”

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Syntax & meaning
• Non-sense sentences with clear syntax
• Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
• A verb crumpled the milk.
• *Furiously sleep ideas green colorless.
• *Milk the crumpled

• Sentences are composed of discrete units that are combined by

rules. These rules explain how speakers can store infinite
knowledge in a finite space- brain.

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Phrase structure rules
• Some words seem to belong together:
• {The crazy man} {is jumping off the bridge}

• Groups of words that belong together are called constituents

• The component that determines the properties of the constituent

is the head, and the constituent can be referred to as a phrase:
e.g. noun phrase

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Phrase Structure Rules
• If we look at phrases, some patterns emerge:

Det N
• the instructor = NP

Det N
• a friend = NP

Det N
• some homeworks = NP

Det N
• two classes = NP
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• some more patterns:

V Det N
• call the instructor= VP

V Det N
• meet a friend = VP

V Det N
• do some homework = VP

V Det N
• skip two classes = VP
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• and yet more patterns:

Prep Det N
• with the instructor= PP

Prep Det N
• from a friend = PP

Prep Det N
• with some homework = PP

Prep Det N
• after two classes = PP

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• Rules for determining the structure of phrases

• Generate a lot of sentences from a small number of rules.

• The structure of a phrase will consist of one or more

constituents in a certain order.

• What does a NP consist of?

• “noun phrases have a Det and a N”
NP Det N

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Lexical Rules
• We need lexical rules to specify which words can be used when we rewrite
constituents such as N.

• PN {Mary, George}
• N {girl, boy, dog}
• Art
• Pro

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•V Det N V Det N V Det N
run a marathon eat the food read the book

• V Prep Det N V Prep Det N

go to the store talk with a teacher

V Det N Prep Det N

take your sister to the library

• “Verb phrases have a V, (sometimes) an NP, and (sometimes) a

PP”
• VP -> V (NP) (PP)

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The main phrase structure rules

1. S  NP VP
2. NP  {Det N, Pro, PN}
3. VP  V (NP) (PP) (Adv)
4. PP  P NP
5. AP  A (PP)

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Phrase Structure Rules & tree diagrams
• NP  (Det) N
• PP  P NP

The boy (NP) the boy in the yard

NP
Det N
Det N PP

The boy P NP

Det N

The boy in the yard

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Phrase Structure Rules
• VP  V (NP) (PP)
• S  NP VP

took the money (VP) took the money from the bank
VP
V NP
V NP PP
Det N
Det N P NP
took the money
Det N

took the money from the bank

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Example (1)
The old tree swayed in the wind
S

NP VP

Det Adj N V PP

P NP

Det N

The old tree swayed in the wind

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Example (2)
The children put the toy in the box
S

NP VP
Det N V NP PP
Det N P NP

Det N
The children put the toy in the box

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Example 3

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Deep and surface structure
• The deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in
which all the elements determining structural interpretation are
represented.
• Sentences that have alternative interpretations
• Sentences that have different surface forms but have the same underlying
meaning.
• Surface structure= how the sentence is actually represented

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Structural Ambiguity (1)
The boy saw the man with the telescope
S

NP VP

Det N V NP PP

Det N P NP

Det N

The boy saw the man with the telescope

Meaning: Using the telescope, the boy saw the man

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Structural Ambiguity (2)
The boy saw the man with the telescope
S

NP VP

Det N V NP

Det N PP

P NP

Det N
The boy saw the man with the telescope
Meaning: The boy saw the man. The man had a telescope. 20
Exercises
• Rewrite the following sentences with Phrase Structure Rules. Hint: Locate your principal NP and
VP before beginning.

a) Miriam swims in the ocean.

b) The dog jumps the barn.
c) Peter told the truth.
d) The wicked witch spilled the potion.
e) The runner with the best time won the prize.

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Exercises
• Draw a labeled tree diagram for the following English phrases. (Hint:
what part of speech is the leader for the phrase?)
a. ancient pyramids
b. in the early evening
c. Drove a car

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Exercises
• Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences:
• The puppy found the child
• The ice melted
• The hot sun melted the ice.
• The house on the hill collapsed in the wind.
• The boat sailed up the river.
• A girl laughed at the monkey.

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 Exercises
• Draw two phrase structure trees representing
the two meanings of the sentence:
• The magician touched the child with the wand.

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Exercises
• In what way these sentences are ambiguous?
• We met an English history teacher
• Flying planes can be dangerous
• The parents of the bride and groom were waiting outside
• The students complained to everyone that they couldn’t understand.

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