C++ PROGRAMMING:

FROM PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
TO PROGRAM DESIGN,
FOURTH EDITION

Chapter 2: Basic Elements of C++

Updated By: Rana AlQurem 1

 Objectives
In this chapter, you will:
■ Become familiar with the basic components of a C++ program, including functions,
special symbols, and identifiers
■ Explore simple data types
■ Discover how to use arithmetic operators
■ Examine how a program evaluates arithmetic expressions
■ Learn what an assignment statement is and what it does
■ Become familiar with the string data type
■ Discover how to input data into memory using input statements
■ Become familiar with the use of increment and decrement operators
■ Examine ways to output results using output statements
■ Learn how to use preprocessor directives and why they are necessary
■ Explore how to properly structure a program, including using comments to document
a program
■ Learn how to write a C++ program

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The Basics of a C++ Program

■ Function: collection of statements; when executed, accomplishes

something
– May be predefined or standard
■ Syntax: rules that specify which statements (instructions) are
legal
■ Programming language: a set of rules, symbols, and special
words
■ Semantic rule: meaning of the instruction

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 Comments
■ Comments are for the reader, not the compiler
■ Two types:
– Single line
// This is a C++ program. It prints the sentence:
// Welcome to C++ Programming.
– Multiple line
/*
You can include comments that can
occupy several lines.
*/

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Special Symbols
■ Special symbols

+
?
-
,
*
/ <=
. !=
; ==
>=

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Reserved Words (Keywords)

■ Reserved words, keywords, or word symbols

– Include:
■ int
■ float
■ double
■ char
■ const
■ void
■ return

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Identifiers

■ Consist of letters, digits, and the underscore character (_)

■ Must begin with a letter or underscore
■ C++ is case sensitive
– NUMBER is not the same as number
■ Unlike reserved words, predefined identifiers may be redefined,
but it is not a good idea
■ Two predefined identifiers are cout and cin

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Identifiers (cont.)
■ The following are legal identifiers in C++:
– first
– conversion
– payRate

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Naming Identifiers

■ Identifiers can be self-documenting:

– CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH
■ Avoid run-together words :
– firstnumber
– Solution:
■ Capitalize the beginning of each new word
– firstNumber
■ Inserting an underscore just before a new word
– First_number

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Whitespaces

■ Every C++ program contains whitespaces

– Include blanks, tabs, and newline characters
■ Used to separate special symbols, reserved words, and
identifiers
■ Proper utilization of whitespaces is important
– Can be used to make the program readable

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Use of Blanks
■ In C++, you use one or more blanks to separate numbers when data is
input
■ Used to separate reserved words and identifiers from each other and
from other symbols
■ Must never appear within a reserved word or identifier

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Data Types

■ Data type: set of values together with a set of operations

■ C++ data types fall into three categories:
■ Simple data types will be covered only

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Simple Data Types

■ Three categories of simple data

– Integral: integers (numbers without a decimal)
– Floating-point: decimal numbers
– Enumeration type: user-defined data type(not given)

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Simple Data Types (cont.)

■ Integral data types are further classified into nine categories:

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Simple Data Types (cont.)

■ Different compilers may allow different ranges of values

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int Data Type

■ Examples:
-6728
0
78
+763
■ Positive integers do not need a + sign
■ No commas are used within an integer
– Commas are used for separating items in a list

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bool Data Type

■ bool type
– Two values: true and false
– Manipulate logical (Boolean) expressions
■ true and false are called logical values
■ bool, true, and false are reserved words

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 char Data Type
■ The smallest integral data type
■ Used for characters: letters, digits, and special symbols
■ Each character is enclosed in single quotes
– 'A', 'a', '0', '*', '+', '$', '&' , ‘6'
■ A blank space is a character and is written ' ', with a space left between
the single quotes

■ ASCII code for character A is 65 and for character a is 97, spase=32 and 0
is 48

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Floating-Point Data Types

■ C++ uses scientific notation to represent real numbers (floating-

point notation)

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Floating-Point Data Types (cont.)

– float: represents any real number

■ Range: -3.4E+38 to 3.4E+38 (four bytes)
– double: represents any real number
■ Range: -1.7E+308 to 1.7E+308 (eight bytes)
– On most newer compilers, data types double and long
double are same

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Floating-Point Data Types (cont.)

■ Maximum number of significant digits (decimal places) for float

values is 6 or 7
■ Maximum number of significant digits for double is 15
■ Precision: maximum number of significant digits
– Float values are called single precision
– Double values are called double precision

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Arithmetic Operators and
Operator Precedence
■ C++ arithmetic operators:
– + addition
– - subtraction
– * multiplication
– / division
– % modulus operator
■ +, -, *, and / can be used with integral and floating-point data
types
■ Operators can be unary or binary

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Order of Precedence

■ All operations inside of () are evaluated first

■ *, /, and % are at the same level of precedence and are evaluated
next
■ + and – have the same level of precedence and are evaluated last
■ When operators are on the same level
– Performed from left to right (associativity)
■ 3 * 7 - 6 + 2 * 5 / 4 + 6 means
(((3 * 7) – 6) + ((2 * 5) / 4 )) +
6

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Expressions

■ If all operands are integers

– Expression is called an integral expression
■ Yields an integral result
■ Example: 2 + 3 * 5
■ If all operands are floating-point
– Expression is called a floating-point expression
■ Yields a floating-point result
■ Example: 12.8 * 17.5 - 34.50

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Mixed Expressions

■ Mixed expression:
– Has operands of different data types
– Contains integers and floating-point
■ Examples of mixed expressions:
2 + 3.5
6 / 4 + 3.9
5.4 * 2 – 13.6 + 18 / 2
6.4 / 2
7 / 2.0

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Mixed Expressions (cont.)

■ Evaluation rules:
– If operator has same types of operands
■ Evaluated according to the type of the operands
– If operator has both types of operands
■ Integer is changed to floating-point.
e.g: 3 + 2.6  3.0+2.6  5.6
■ Operator is evaluated
■ Result is floating-point
– Entire expression is evaluated according to precedence rules

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Type Conversion or Casting

■ Implicit type coercion: when value of one type is automatically

changed to another type
e.g : ‘a’ + 2  97+2  99
what about ‘a’ + ‘b’ ? Try it
■ Cast operator: provides explicit type conversion
static_cast<dataTypeName>(expression)

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Type Conversion (cont.)

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 string Type
■ Programmer-defined type supplied in ANSI/ISO Standard C++ library
■ Sequence of zero or more characters
■ Enclosed in double quotation marks
■ Null: a string with no characters
■ Each character has relative position in string
– Position of first character is 0
■ Length of a string is number of characters in it
– Example: length of "William Jacob" is 13

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Using the string Data Type
in a Program
■ To use the string type, you need to access its definition from
the header file string
■ Include the following preprocessor directive:
#include <string>

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Input

■ Data must be loaded into main memory before it can be

manipulated
■ Storing data in memory is a two-step process:
– Instruct computer to allocate memory
– Include statements to put data into memory

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Allocating Memory with
Constants and Variables (cont.)
■ Variable: memory location whose content may change during
execution
■ The syntax to declare a variable is:

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Putting Data into Variables

■ Ways to place data into a variable:

– Use C++’s assignment statement
– Use input (read) statements

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Assignment Statement

■ The assignment statement takes the form:

■ Expression is evaluated and its value is assigned to the variable

on the left side
■ In C++, = is called the assignment operator

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Assignment Statement (cont.)

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Saving and Using the Value of
an Expression
■ To save the value of an expression:
– Declare a variable of the appropriate data type
– Assign the value of the expression to the variable that was
declared
■ Use the assignment statement
■ Wherever the value of the expression is needed, use the variable
holding the value

Updated By: Rana AlQurem 36

Declaring & Initializing
Variables
■ Variables can be initialized when declared:
int first=13, second=10;
char ch=' ';
double x=12.6;
■ All variables must be initialized before they are used
– But not necessarily during declaration

Updated By: Rana AlQurem 37

Allocating Memory with
Constants and Variables
■ Named constant: memory location whose content can’t change
during execution
■ The syntax to declare a named constant is:

■ In C++, const is a reserved word

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Input (Read) Statement

■ cin is used with >> to gather input

■ The stream extraction operator is >>

■ For example, if miles is a double variable
cin >> miles;
– Causes computer to get a value of type double
– Places it in the variable miles

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Input (Read) Statement (cont.)

■ Using more than one variable in cin allows more than one
value to be read at a time
■ For example, if feet and inches are variables of type int, a
statement such as:
cin >> feet >> inches;
– Inputs two integers from the keyboard
– Places them in variables feet and inches respectively

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Input (Read) Statement (cont.)

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Variable Initialization

■ There are two ways to initialize a variable:

int feet;
– By using the assignment statement
feet = 35;
– By using a read statement
cin >> feet;

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 Output
■ The syntax of cout and << is:

– Called an output statement

■ The stream insertion operator is <<
■ Expression evaluated and its value is printed at the current cursor
position on the screen

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Output (cont.)

■ A manipulator is used to format the output

– Example: endl causes insertion point to move to
beginning of next line

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 Output (cont.)
■ The new line character '\n' is equivalent to endl .
– May appear anywhere in the string

cout << "Hello there.";

cout << "My name is James.";
■ Output:
Hello there.My name is James.

cout << "Hello there.\n";

cout << "My name is James.";
■ Output :
Hello there.
My name is James.

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Program Style and Form

■ Every C++ program has a function main

■ It must also follow the syntax rules
■ Other rules serve the purpose of giving precise meaning to the
language

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Programming Example: Body
of the Function
■ The body of the function main has the following form:
int main ()
{
declare variables
statements
return 0;
}

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Use of Semicolons, Brackets,
and Commas
■ All C++ statements end with a semicolon
– Also called a statement terminator
■ { and } are not C++ statements
■ Commas separate items in a list

Updated By: Rana AlQurem 48

Semantics

■ Possible to remove all syntax errors in a program and still not

have it run
■ Even if it runs, it may still not do what you meant it to do
■ For example,
2 + 3 * 5 and (2 + 3) * 5
are both syntactically correct expressions, but have different
meanings

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Form and Style

■ Consider two ways of declaring variables:

– Method 1
int feet, inch;
double x, y;
– Method 2
int a,b;double x,y;
■ Both are correct; however, the second is hard to read

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Syntax

■ Errors in syntax are found in compilation

int x; //Line 1
int y //Line 2: syntax error or compile
error
double z; //Line 3

y = w + x; //Line 4: error

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Prompt Lines

■ Prompt lines: executable statements precedes every cin statements

that inform the user what to do ( what to input ).
■ Echo statements: rewrite what the user input .

cout <<"Please enter a number between 1 and 10 ";

cin >> num;

cout<< num ; // Echo st.

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Output (continued)

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 Increment & Decrement
Operators
■ Increment operator: increment variable by 1
– Pre-increment: ++variable
– Post-increment: variable++
■ Decrement operator: decrement variable by 1
– Pre-decrement: --variable
– Post-decrement: variable—
■ What is the difference between the following?

x = 5; x = 5;
y = ++x; y = x++;
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More on Assignment
Statements
■ C++ has special assignment statements called compound
assignments
+=, -=, *=, /=, and %=
■ Example:

x *= y;

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 Preprocessor Directives
■ C++ has a small number of operations
■ Many functions and symbols needed to run a C++ program are provided
as collection of libraries
■ Every library has a name and is referred to by a header file
■ Preprocessor directives are commands supplied to the preprocessor
■ All preprocessor commands begin with #
■ No semicolon at the end of these commands

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Preprocessor Directives
(continued)
■ Syntax to include a header file:

■ For example:

#include <iostream>
– Causes the preprocessor to include the header file
iostream in the program

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namespace and Using cin
and cout in a Program
■ cin and cout are declared in the header file iostream, but
within std namespace
■ To use cin and cout in a program, use the following two
statements:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

Updated By: Rana AlQurem 58

Creating a C++ Program

■ C++ program has two parts:

– Preprocessor directives
– The program
■ Preprocessor directives and program statements constitute C++
source code (.cpp)
■ Compiler generates object code (.obj)
■ Executable code is produced and saved in a file with the file
extension .exe

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Creating a C++ Program
(continued)
■ A C++ program is a collection of functions, one of which is the
function main
■ The first line of the function main is called the heading of the
function:
int main()
■ The statements enclosed between the curly braces ({ and }) form
the body of the function
– Contains two types of statements:
■ Declaration statements
■ Executable statements

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Updated By: Rana AlQurem 61
Creating a C++ Program
(continued)
Sample Run:
Line 9: firstNum = 18
Line 10: Enter an integer: 15

Line 13: secondNum = 15

Line 15: The new value of firstNum =
60

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Documentation

■ A well-documented program is easier to understand and modify

■ You use comments to document programs
■ Comments should appear in a program to:
– Explain the purpose of the program
– Identify who wrote it
– Explain the purpose of particular statements

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Programming Example:
Convert Length
■ Write a program that takes as input a given length expressed in
feet and inches
– Convert and output the length in centimeters
■ Input: length in feet and inches
■ Output: equivalent length in centimeters
■ Lengths are given in feet and inches
■ Program computes the equivalent length in centimeters
■ One inch is equal to 2.54 centimeters

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Programming Example:
Convert Length (cont.)
■ Convert the length in feet and inches to all inches:
– Multiply the number of feet by 12
– Add given inches
■ Use the conversion formula (1 inch = 2.54 centimeters) to find
the equivalent length in centimeters

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Programming Example:
Convert Length (cont.)
■ The algorithm is as follows:
– Get the length in feet and inches
– Convert the length into total inches
– Convert total inches into centimeters
– Output centimeters

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 Programming Example:
Variables and Constants
■ Variables
int feet; //variable to hold given feet
int inches; //variable to hold given inches
int totalInches; //variable to hold total inches
double centimeters; //variable to hold length in
//centimeters
■ Named Constant
const double CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH = 2.54;
const int INCHES_PER_FOOT = 12;

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Programming Example: Main
Algorithm
■ Prompt user for input
■ Get data
■ Echo the input (output the input)
■ Find length in inches
■ Output length in inches
■ Convert length to centimeters
■ Output length in centimeters

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Programming Example:
Putting It Together
■ Program begins with comments
■ System resources will be used for I/O
■ Use input statements to get data and output statements to print
results
■ Data comes from keyboard and the output will display on the
screen
■ The first statement of the program, after comments, is
preprocessor directive to include header file iostream

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Programming Example: Putting It
Together (cont.)
■ Two types of memory locations for data manipulation:
– Named constants
■ Usually put before main
– Variables
■ This program has only one function (main), which will contain all
the code
■ The program needs variables to manipulate data, which are declared
in main

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Programming Example:
Writing a Complete Program
■ Begin the program with comments for documentation
■ Include header files
■ Declare named constants, if any
■ Write the definition of the function main

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Updated By: Rana AlQurem 72
 Programming Example:
Sample Run
Enter two integers, one for feet, one for inches: 15 7

The numbers you entered are 15 for feet and 7 for inches.
The total number of inches = 187
The number of centimeters = 474.98

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Summary
■ C++ program: collection of functions where each program has a function
called main
■ Identifier consists of letters, digits, and underscores, and begins with letter or
underscore
■ The arithmetic operators in C++ are addition (+), subtraction
(-),multiplication (*), division (/), and modulus (%)
■ Arithmetic expressions are evaluated using the precedence associativity
rules
■ All operands in an integral expression are integers and all operands in a
floating-point expression are decimal numbers
■ Mixed expression: contains both integers and decimal numbers
■ Use the cast operator to explicitly convert values from one data type to
another
■ A named constant is initialized when declared
■ All variables must be declared before used

Updated By: Rana AlQurem 74