What is Neuropsychology ?

Neuropsychology became an independent discipline only in

the second half of the 19th century, as an amalgam of
several fields: neurology, psychology, neuroanatomy,
neurophysiology, neurochemistry, neuropharmacology
(Benton, 1988)
Neuropsychology is a scientific discipline and branch of
psychology that focuses on the study of brain-behavior
relationships – that is, how the brain normally (or
abnormally due to injury or disease) influences cognition
and behavior.

From: Encyclopedia of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms, 2023

 What is Clinical
Neuropsychology ?
Clinical neuropsychology is based on the premise that
assessments of these overt behaviors provide information
about the functional integrity of the central nervous system.
What is the difference between psychology and
neuropsychology?
The main difference between psychology and
neuropsychology is in their approaches to how they
address psychological conditions. Psychologists focus
more on emotions, while neuropsychologists focus on
neurobehavioral disorders, cognitive processes, and brain
disorders
 What is the role of
Neuropsychologist?
The major role of clinical
neuropsychologists is the assessment of
cognitive functions in individuals with known
or suspected brain damage.
 Cognitive Functions
• Cognitive functions may be conceptualized as those
processes by which an individual perceives both external
and internal stimuli; selects pertinent stimuli and inhibits
nonpertinent stimuli; records, retains, and recalls
information; forms associations between stimuli and
manipulates information in the pursuit of a goal; and
outputs information through the expression of overt
behavior.
Mind Body Dualism
 Mind Body Dualism
In 17th-century French philosopher and mathematician
René Descartes, who gave dualism its classical
formulation. Beginning from his famous dictum cogito, ergo
sum (Latin: “I think, therefore I am”), Descartes developed
a theory of mind as an immaterial, nonextended substance
that engages in various activities or undergoes various
states such as rational thought, imagining, feeling
(sensation), and willing.
Part of Descartes’s dualistic theory is known
asinteractionism i.e.willing the arm to be raised causes it
to be raised, whereas being hit by a hammer on the finger
causes the mind to feel pain.
 Dual-aspect
theory(neutral monism)
according to which mental
and physical states and
events constitute different
aspects or properties of a
single underlying substance,
which is neither mental nor
physical.
Occasionalism maintains that apparent links between
mental and physical events are the result of God’s constant
causal action. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a 17th-century
German rationalist and mathematician, saw mind and body
as two perfectly correlated series, synchronized like two
clocks at their origin by God in a preestablished harmony.
Leibniz believed that mind and body are separate but that
their activities directly parallel each other.
American psychologist John B. Watson moved away
from consideration of the spiritual or mental and focused on
observable human and animal behaviours and their
relationship to the nervous system.
Epiphenomenalism, which says that mental events and
physical events are different. The epiphenomenalist holds,
however, that the only true causes are physical events, with
mind as a by-product.
For instance, fear seems to make the heart beat faster, but
according to epiphenomenalism the biochemical secretions
of the brain and nervous system (such as adrenaline)—not
the experience of fear—is what raises the heartbeat
 Biological Explanationof
Behavior
Biological explanations of behavior fall into four categories:
Physiological
Functional
Ontogenetic
Evolutionary.
Normal behavior does not fall into any of these categories.
For example someone does something, such as eats
icecream, that is a "want to". However, those things that are
not explained, such as why someone yawns or why a bird
flies south for the winter without thinking about it. These
things fall into one of the categories listed above.
Physiological Explanation
It relates the behavior to an
activity of the brain or other
organs. It correlates with the
mechanics of the body. The
chemical reaction that
allows hormones to trigger
brain activity and the path
by which brain activity
controls the movement of
muscles through
contractions would fall into
this category
Functional Explanation
• It elaborates why a
behavior evolved in the
way that it did.
• A species that can
change its color to match
its surroundings. The
functional explanationt to
this would be the species
can change colors to hide
from its predators.
Ontogenetic Explanation
It describes the
development of a behavior
or structure. It maps the
influences of nutrition,
genes, experiences, and the
correlations or interactions
of these factors in producing
behaviors.
A young male bird learns
songs by listening to the
adult males.
 Evolutionary Explanation
• This explanation looks at a behavior or structure by way
of evolutionary history.
• When a species of birds has a song that sounds almost
identical to that of another type of bird of a different
species. Baird's sandpipers and dunlins are two different
types of shorebirds, but both give their calls in distinct
pulses, not like any other shorebirds. This relation
suggests that the two types of birds evolved from a
single ancestor.
Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral Genetics and
Epigenetics
Epigenetics
 Early History
• The relationship between behaviour and genetics, or
heredity, dates to the work of English scientist Sir
Francis Galton (1822–1911), who coined the phrase
“nature and nurture.
• Galton studied the families of outstanding men of his day
and concluded, like his cousin Charles Darwin, that
mental powers run in families.
• Galton became the first to use twins in genetic research
and pioneered many of the statistical methods of
analysis that are in use today
Behavioral Genetics
 Behavioral Genetics
Behaviour genetics(psychogenetics) is the study of the
influence of an organism’s genetic composition on its
behaviour and the interaction of heredity and environment
as they affect behaviour.
In1970s a balanced view came to prevail in psychiatry that
recognized the importance of nature as well as nurture. In
psychology, this reconciliation did not take hold until the
1980s.
Behavioral genetic research today focuses on identifying
specific genes that affect behavioral dimensions, such as
personality and intelligence, and disorders, such as autism,
hyperactivity, depression, and schizophrenia.
The Brain
The Brain
Techniques for Studying the
Brain
 Methods
Brain research can be done in
a variety of ways. Brain
damage as a result of an
accident or disease can
provide a wealth of
information.

Lesioning is the removal or

destruction of part of the
brain.

Any time brain tissue is

removed (tumor, lobotomy,
behavior experiment in
animals, etc.) researchers can
examine behavior changes and
infer the function of that part
of the brain.
 Functional Methods
EEG
EEG (electroencephalogram) is an amplified recording
of the electrical waves sweeping across the brain’s
surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
(sleep studies, etc.)
 PET Scan

PET (positron emission

tomography) Scan is a
visual display of brain
activity that detects a
radioactive form of
glucose while the brain
performs a given task.
By doing this, one can
connect brain activity to
the area of the brain that
controls it.
 Structural Methods

MRI Scan
MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging) uses magnetic
fields and radio waves to
produce computer-generated
images that distinguish
among different types of
brain tissue. Uses different
technology to produce
picture, but is similar to a
CAT (computerized axial The first images is of a normal
tomography). brain. The second image shows
ventricular enlargement in a
schizophrenic patient.
 Combination Method
(structure & function)
fMRI

An fMRI (functional MRI)

is a comparison of shots
before and during the
performance of mental
functions to map the parts
of the brain that control
those functions. It
combines elements of the
MRI (structure) and PET The fMRI image shows brain
(function). regions that are active when
a participants lies.
The Brain
Areas and Parts of the
Brain
 I. Older Brain Structures
A. The Brainstem
1. Medulla
2. Pons
3. Reticular Formation
B. Thalamus
C. Cerebellum
D. The Limbic System
1. Amygdala
2. Hypothalamus
3. Hippocampus
 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

9 - 39
 The Brainstem
The Brainstem is the oldest part of the brain, beginning
where the spinal cord swells and enters the skull. It is
responsible for automatic survival functions.

i nstem
bra

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 Parts of the Brain Stem:

The Medulla is the base of the

brainstem that controls
heartbeat and breathing.
Pons helps with movement
and facial expression.

Reticular Formation is a Pons

nerve network in the

brainstem that plays an
important role in controlling
arousal.
 Parts of the Brain Stem

The Thalamus is the

brain’s sensory
switchboard, located on
top of the brainstem. It
directs messages to the
sensory areas in the cortex
and transmits replies to the
cerebellum and medulla.

It receives information for

all of the senses EXCEPT
for smell.
 Cerebellum

The Cerebellum is called

the “little brain” and is
attached to the rear of the
brainstem.

It helps coordinate
voluntary movements
and balance.

It also plays a part in

memory, emotion
regulation, timing,
emotional modulation and
sensory discrimination. Brainstem
The Limbic System

The Limbic System is a

doughnut-shaped system of
neural structures at the
border of the brainstem and
cerebrum, associated with
emotions such as fear,
aggression and drives for
food and sex.

It includes the
hippocampus,
amygdala, and
hypothalamus.
 Hippocampus

Hippocampus

The Hippocampus processes

memories.
 Amygdala

The Amygdala consists of

two almond-shaped
neural clusters linked to
the emotions of fear and
anger.
 Hypothalamus

The Hypothalamus lies

below (hypo) the thalamus.

It directs several
maintenance activities like
eating, drinking, body
temperature, and control of
emotions.

It helps control the

endocrine system by giving
directions to the pituitary
Pituitary
gland.
 The Limbic System contains many
Reward/Pleasure Centers
Olds and Milner (1954)
discovered that Rats cross an
electrified grid for self-
stimulation when electrodes are
placed in the reward
(hypothalamus) center. When
the limbic system is
manipulated, a rat will navigate
fields or climb up a tree (bottom
picture).

It is possible that some

addictive behavior may be
related to a genetic disorder
(reward deficiency syndrome).
 II. The Cerebrum
and cerebral cortex
 Cerebrum
• The cerebrum is the largest portion of the
mature brain, consisting of two cerebral
hemispheres.
• A deep ridge of nerve fibers called the corpus
callosum connects the hemispheres.
• The surface of the brain is marked by
convolutions, sulci, and fissures.A thin layer of
gray matter, the cerebral cortex, lies on the
outside of the cerebrum and contains 75% of
the cell bodies in the nervous system.
 Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that
covers the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body’s ultimate
control and information processing center.
 Structure of the Cerebral Cortex

Each brain hemisphere

is divided into four
lobes that are separated
by prominent fissures. A.
B.
These lobes are the:
a. frontal lobe – D. C.

judgement/reasoning
b. parietal lobe – senses
c. occipital lobe – vision
d. temporal lobe –
hearing
 Functions of the Cerebral Cortex

The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the frontal lobes
that control voluntary movements.
The Sensory Cortex is the area at the front of the parietal lobes
that receives information from skin surface and sense organs.
 Hemisphere Dominance

• Both cerebral hemispheres function in receiving

and analyzing sensory input and sending motor
impulses to the opposite side of the body.
• Most people exhibit hemisphere dominance for
the language-related activities of speech,
writing, and reading.
 Hemisphere Dominance

• The left hemisphere is dominant in 90% of the

population, although some individuals have the
right hemisphere as dominant, and others show
equal dominance in both hemispheres.
• The non-dominant hemisphere specializes in
nonverbal functions and controls emotions and
intuitive thinking.
 Functions of the Cerebral Cortex

The visual cortex is

located in the occipital
lobe of the brain.

The functional MRI

scan shows the visual
cortex is active as the
subject looks at faces.
 Functions of the Cerebral Cortex
The auditory cortex is
located in the temporal
lobe of the brain.

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_reveals_about_our_minds.html
 Association Areas
The association areas integrate sensory information and
stored memories. More intelligent animals have
increased “uncommitted” or association areas of the
cortex.
 The Curious Story of
Phineas Gage (1848)

Frontal lobe damage showed effects on personality and social functioning

http://www.boston.com/news/health/articles/2009/07/22/newly_discovere
d_image_offers_fresh_insights_about_1848_medical_miracle/
 Language
Aphasia is an impairment of language, usually
caused by left hemisphere damage either to
Broca’s area (impaired speaking) or to
Wernicke’s area (impaired understanding).
 brocas area
• Research supports the view that the role of language function is localized to
the left hemisphere of the brain.
• Broca’s area has been found to be associated with multiple language
functions including language comprehension and being able to articulate
words.
• The main symptom of Broca’s aphasia is a deficit in the production of
language, both spoken and written. A person with damage to this area
would likely be unable to articulate words or be able to string a coherent
sentence together.

• Speaking in an abnormal tone or rhythm can also be a symptom of this

damage, as well as speech being repetitive, disordered grammar and a
disordered structure of individual words
 Wernickes area
• People who experience Wernicke’s aphasia may experience symptoms
such as an inability to understand spoken language and speaking using
inappropriate words.

• Their sentences may not make sense, they may repeat words, make up
meaningless words or their sentences lacking any meaning.

• The majority of the time, people with Wernicke’s aphasia will often speak
fluently, in comparison to Broca’s aphasia where language is non-fluent or
broken up .
Specialization & Integration
Brain activity when hearing,
seeing, and speaking words.
 The Brain’s Plasticity

 The brain is sculpted by

our genes but also by our experiences.
 Plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to modify itself
after some type of injury or illness.
 Usually the brain areas that are related to the
damaged/missing part develop the ability to function as a
part of the new system. For example, in blind people the
visual cortex may register and process touch and/or
hearing also (heightening those senses)

 Our brains demonstrate more plasticity when we are

children.
 Need More Mnemonics?
• Cerebral Cortex: imagine a Texas cowboy hat on top of a brain. The
cortex is the outer layer of the brain just under the hat where complex
thinking occurs.
• Corpus Callosum: The corpus callosum is the fibers that connect the
two halves of the brain. Thus, it adds the two parts together. Think of the
corPLUS CalloSUM. Since the corpus callosum coordinates
communication between the two hemispheres, think of corpus Call
Someone.
• Thalamus: the thalamus takes sensations that come from the body and
directs them to the appropriate part of the brain for processing. Thus,
think of Hal and Amos – two traffic cops in the brain who direct these
sensations to the right route.
• Hypothalamus: the hypothalamus regulates a number of things in the
body such as body temperature, thirst, hunger, and sex drive. Think of
“hypo the llamas”. Your llamas are hot, sweaty and thirsty and you use a
hypo to spray water on them to cool them down and give them some
water.
 Ventricles and CSF
• The ventricles are a series of connected cavities
within the cerebral hemispheres and brain stem.
• The ventricles are continuous with the central
canal of the spinal cord, and are filled with
cerebrospinal fluid.Choroid plexuses, specialized
capillaries from the pia mater,secrete CSF.
• Most cerebrospinal fluid arises in the lateral
ventricles.Cerebrospinal fluid has nutritive as
well as protective (cushioning) functions.
 Need more Mnemonics
• Hippocampus: the hippocampus is the seat of memory. Think of a
hippo with a compass. The hippo uses the compass to find his way
back to the swamp because he can’t remember where it is.
• Amygdala: the amygdala controls your sense of fear. Think of either
a MIG coming right at you and, of course, making you afraid, or
picture a scary wig with dollars in it
• Pons: the pons helps you relax and sleep. Think of a relaxing pond.
• Cerebellum: the cerebellum helps in coordination and balance.
Picture your favorite athlete with bells all over his/her body (hanging
from his/her clothes, hands, feet, etc.).
• Reticular Formation: the reticular formation helps you to become
alert and aroused when you need to be. Think of what would
happen if you were napping and someone tickled you: your reticular
formation would kick into gear to wake you up.
• Medulla: the medulla regulates the autonomic activity of your heart
and lungs. Picture medals over your heart and lungs, or stick those
medals into a heart.
 6 Pop Quiz
7

4
3

1
The Brain
The Divided
Brain
 Our Divided Brain
 Our brain is divided into two hemispheres.
 The Left Hemisphere
 Processes logical tasks (reading, writing, speaking,
mathematics, and comprehension skills)
 Controls the right side of our body
 In the 1960s, it was termed as the dominant brain.
 The Right Hemisphere
 Processes non-verbal tasks/perceptual (spatial relationships,
musical/artistic ability and mental imagery)
 Controls the left side of our body
 May also be related to some negative emotions

 The Corpus Callosum is a wide band of

axon fibers that connect the two hemispheres
and allow them to communicate.
 Splitting the Brain
A procedure in which the two hemispheres of the brain are
isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the
corpus callosum) between them. Usually done to prevent
uncontrollable seizures in patients with severe epilepsy.

Corpus Callosum
Split Brain Patients

With the corpus

callosum severed,
objects (apple)
presented in the right
visual field can be
named. Objects
(pencil) in the left
visual field cannot.
 Divided Consciousness
They found that the patients were able to say the word which was presented on the right
visual field, which is controlled by the left hemisphere and contains the language centers.
The words presented on the left side, controlled by the right hemisphere, could not be
spoken.

SO
Lateralization also Occurs in Non-
Split Brains

People with intact brains also

show left-right hemispheric
differences in mental abilities.

A number of brain scan studies

show normal individuals engage
their right brain when
completing a perceptual task and
their left brain when carrying out
a linguistic task.