Fundamentals of wireless digital communication

Source: WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS: Vijay K . Garg, Wireless Network Evolution, Prentice Hall
Topics
● Fundamentals of Wireless Digital Communication:
Free Space Attenuation
Reflection and Transmission
Temporal Dependence of Fading
● Capacity of Wireless Channels :
Capacity in AWGN
Channel and System Model
Directionally Resolved Measurements
Advanced Modulation / Access Techniques (MFSK, Spread Spectrum)
● Antenna and Propagation:
Line of Sight and Non-Line of Sight
Link Budget Analysis
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Books to Refer
● Stallings, William. Data and computer communications. Pearson Education India, 2007.
● Tse, David, and Pramod Viswanath. Fundamentals of wireless communication. Cambridge
university press, 2005.
● Upena Dalal, Wireless communication (1e), Oxford 2014.
● Andrea Molisch , Wireless Communications (2e), John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2011.
● Kaveh Pahlavan and Prashant Krishnamurthy, Principles of Wireless Networks (1e),
Prentice Hall 2009.
● Andrea Goldsmith, Wireless Communications (2e), John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2011.

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Wireless Transmission: Review
3 general ranges of frequencies
● Radio range frequencies: 30 MHz to 1 GHz
Omnidirectional applications
AM, FM
● Microwave frequencies: 1 GHz to 40 GHz
Highly directional beams
Suitable for point-to-point transmission
Satellite communication
● Infrared range frequencies: 3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014 Hz
Local point-to-point applications
Multipoint application within confined areas.

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Wireless Transmission: Review
● Antennas
An electrical conductor or system of conductors
for radiating/collecting (Transmission/Reception) electromagnetic energy.

● Function:
Transmission: Converts RF electrical energy from the transmitter to electromagnetic energy and then
radiates into the surrounding environment. (Vice-versa for Reception)

Transceivers: Antenna used for both transmission and reception in two-way communication

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Wireless Transmission: Review
• Isotropic Antenna
• Idealized antenna. It is a point in space that radiates power in all directions equally.
• Actual radiation pattern: a sphere with the antenna at the center.

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Wireless Transmission: Review
• Parabolic Reflective Antenna
• Used in terrestrial Microwave and satellite
applications
• Parabola is locus of all points equidistant from a
fixed line and a fixed point : Focus
• Transmission: Electromagnetic source at the
focus and with reflective paraboloid, parallel
beams formed without dispersion
• In practice: Dispersion occurs leading to loss
• Larger the diameter of antenna, more tightly
directional beam
• Reception: Incoming waves parallel to axis
collected at focus

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Wireless Transmission: Review
• Antenna Gain:
• Measure of directionality of an antenna.
• Relative measure with Isotropic antenna.
• It is the power output in a particular direction, compared to that produced by Isotropic
antenna.
• Ex: Gain of 3 dB. = 10 log (Pout Antenna/Pout Isotropic)
Pout Antenna/Pout Isotropic = 2.
• Increased power in a given direction is at the expense of another
direction.
• Effective Area of antenna is related to physical size and
shape

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Wireless Transmission: Review

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Wireless Transmission: Review

Source: William Stallings

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Terrestrial Microwave
● Used for long haul telecommunications and short point-to-point links
● Requires fewer repeaters but line of sight
● Use a parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam onto a receiver antenna
● 1-40GHz frequencies
● Higher frequencies give higher data rates
● Main source of loss is attenuation
Distance, rainfall
● Also interference

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Wireless Transmission: Review
● Transmission Loss or Loss due to attenuation

● d distance
● λ wavelength

● Loss varies as the square of the distance.

● Repeaters (Amplifiers) for every 10 to 100km
● Atmospheric variations, rain increases attenuation

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Satellite Microwave
● Satellite is relay station
● Receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats signal and transmits on another frequency
eg. Uplink 5.925-6.425 GHz & downlink 3.7-4.2 GHz
● Typically requires geo-stationary orbit
Height of 35,784km
Spaced at least 3-4° apart
● Typical uses
Television
Long distance telephone
Private business networks
Global positioning

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Satellite Point to Point Link

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Satellite Broadcast Link

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Broadcast Radio
● Radio is 3kHz to 300GHz
● Use broadcast radio, 30MHz - 1GHz, for:
FM radio
UHF and VHF television
● Is omnidirectional
● Still need line of sight
● Suffers from multipath interference
Reflections from land, water, other objects

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Infrared
● Modulate noncoherent infrared light
● End line of sight (or reflection)
● Are blocked by walls
● No licenses required
● Typical uses
TV remote control
IRD port

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Wireless Propagation Ground Wave

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Wireless Propagation Sky Wave

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Wireless Propagation Line of Sight

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Refraction
● Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of density of material
~3 x 108 m/s in vacuum, less in anything else
● Speed changes as move between media
● Index of refraction (refractive index) is
Sin(incidence)/sin(refraction)
Varies with wavelength
● Have gradual bending if medium density varies
Density of atmosphere decreases with height
Results in bending towards earth of radio waves
Hence optical and radio horizons differ

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Optical and Radio Line of Sight
● Optical line of sight (with no intervening obstacles)

d = distance between antenna and the horizon in km

 h = antenna height in meters

● Radio line of sight

K = adjustment factor for refraction.
Rule of thumb K = 4/3

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Optical and Radio Line of Sight
● Radio line of sight
● K = adjustment factor for refraction. Rule of thumb K = 4/3

● Maximum distance between two antennas for LOS is

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Optical and Radio Line of Sight
● where d is the distance between an antenna and the horizon in kilometers and h is the
antenna height in meters.

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Line of Sight Transmission
● Free space loss
Loss of signal with distance
● Atmospheric Absorption
From water vapour and oxygen absorption
● Multipath
Multiple interfering signals from reflections
● Refraction
Bending signal away from receiver

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Line of Sight Transmission
● Free space loss
For Isotropic antennas
loss of signal with distance

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Line of Sight Transmission
● Free space loss

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Line of Sight Transmission
● Free space loss
Other antennas with gain

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Line of Sight Transmission

• Free space loss

• Other antennas with gain

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Free Space Loss

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Free Space Loss

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Multipath Interference

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Wireless Channel: Multipath fading
● Channel strength variations over time and over frequency
● Two types
Small-scale fading channels
Large-scale fading channels
Attenuation in free space: Power degrades with distance (1/d 2)
Shadows: Signals are blocked by obstructing structures.
Mathematical modelling: log-normally distributed fluctuation superimposed on a mean path loss which is distance
dependent.
Frequency independent

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Wireless Channel: Multipath fading
● Small-scale fading channels
Frequency dependent
Random frequency modulation due to Doppler shift on different multipath signals
Time dispersion or echoes caused by multipath propagation delays due to nearby objects
Even when the mobile is stationary, the received signal may fade due to the movement of surrounding
objects.

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
● Wireless Channels : electromagnetic radiation
● Different frequency bands are Regulated by department of telecommunications.
E band 3.30 to 4.90 GHz
G band 3.95 to 5.85 GHz
F band 4.90 to 7.05 GHz
C band 5.85 to 8.20 GHz
λ=c.F
Speed of light c = 3x108 m/s, λ is wavelength, F : frequency

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38
Physical modelling for wireless channels

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 Attenuation Attenuation:
Loss of transmission power due to long
Dispersion &
distance
Nonlinearity

Distortion Dispersion and Nonlinearities:

Erodes clarity with distance and speed

Transmitted Data Waveform Waveform After 1000 Km Distortion due to signal detection and
recovery

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
Model 1: Free space, fixed transmit and receive antennas
● In response to a transmitted sinusoid cos 2πft, we can express the electric far field at time t
as

●u: a point in space (Receiver)

● r : distance from the transmitting antenna to u
● (θ, ψ ) : vertical and horizontal angles from the antenna to u
● The constant c is the speed of light, and is the radiation pattern of the sending
antenna at frequency f in the direction
● Note: It is important to observe that, as the distance r increases, the electric field decreases
as r−1 and thus the power per square meter in the free space wave decreases as r −2 .
● Source textbook: Fundamentals_Wireless_Communication
43
Physical modelling for wireless channels
● For fixed receive antenna at the location u

If

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
Model 2: Free space, fixed transmitter and moving receive antenna
● Consider the fixed antenna and free space model above with a receive antenna that is
moving with speed v in the direction of increasing distance from the transmit antenna
● u(t) = (r(t), θ , ψ) with r(t) = r0+ vt.

• Doppler shift of – f v / c
• The reader should be familiar with the Doppler shift associated
with moving cars. When an ambulance is rapidly moving toward
us we hear a higher frequency siren. When it passes us we hear a
rapid shift toward a lower frequency.
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Contd..

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
● Model 3: Reflecting wall, fixed antenna

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
● Model 3: Reflecting wall, fixed antenna

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
● Model 3: Reflecting wall, fixed antenna

● When the phase difference is an integer multiple of 2π, the two waves add constructively,
and the received signal is strong.
● When the phase difference is an odd integer multiple of π, the two waves add destructively,
and the received signal is weak.
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Physical modelling for wireless channels
Model 3: Reflecting wall, fixed antenna
● As a function of r, this translates into a spatial pattern of constructive and destructive
interference of the waves. The distance from a peak to a valley is called the coherence
distance:
• Coherence distance

• Delay spread it is the difference between propagation

dealy.

For fixed r, if f changes by Coherence Bandwidth = 1/Td

5
0
Physical modelling for wireless channels
● Model 4: Reflecting wall, moving antenna

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
● Model 4: Reflecting wall, moving antenna

• Doppler shift: D1 =−fv/c D2 =+fv/c

• Doppler Spread: Ds := D2 – D1

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
● Model 5: Reflection from a ground plane

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
● Coherence Bandwidth (Bc) :
Relation derived from the rms delay spread
Channel evaluation: Statistical measure of the range of frequencies
Flat band or equal gain region
Range of frequencies, where two frequency components with strong potential for amplitude correlation

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
● Delay spread and coherence bandwidth
Describe the time dispersive nature of channel in a local area.

● Doppler Spread and Coherence Time

Describes the time varying nature of the channel in small-scale region
D or BD is a measure of the spectral broadening
the range of frequencies over which the receiver Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero
● If Baseband signal Bandwidth >> Doppler Spread = slow fading

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Physical modelling for wireless channels
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
● Coherence time Tc is the time domain dual of Doppler spread

● Tc = 1 / fm
● Where fm is maximum doppler shift

● The time duration over which two received signal have a strong potential for amplitude
correlation.

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Types of Small – scale fading

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Path Loss
● Reference: Wireless Communication and Networking by Vijay Garg
● Received Signal Power:

● Free Space loss: or in dB =

● If other losses also Present (L0 = other losses)

● where: f carrier frequency in MHz, d separation distance in km ( 1 km)
● It should be noted that the free-space attenuation increases by 6 dB whenever the length of
the path is doubled. Similarly, as frequency is doubled, free-space attenuation also
increases by 6 dB
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Path Loss over a Reflecting Surface

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Path Loss over a Reflecting Surface
• Reference: Appendix B: Wireless Communication and Networking by Vijay Garg

● Received Signal Power:

● where

● Loss:

● Note that under the assumed

conditions the received signal level
depends only on the transmitted 61
Examples:
● With hb = 100 ft, and hm = 5 ft, and a frequency of 881.52 MHz ( λ =1.116 ft), calculate
signal attenuation at a distance equal to 5000 ft. Assume antenna gains are 8 dB and 0 dB
for the base station and mobile station, respectively. What are the free-space and reflected
surface attenuations? Assume the earth surface to be flat.

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Examples:

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Examples:
Consider a base station transmitting to a mobile station in free space. The following parameters
relate to this communication system:
● Distance between base station and mobile station: 8000 m
● Transmitter frequency: 1.5 GHz (λ= 0.2 m)
● Base station transmitting power, Pt = 10 W(10 dBW)
● Total system losses: 8 dB
● Mobile receiver noise figure Nf = 5 dB
● Mobile receiver antenna temperature = 290 K
● Mobile receiver bandwidth Bw = 1.25 MHz
● Antenna gains are 8 dB and 0 dB for the base station and mobile station, respectively.
● Antenna height at the base station and mobile station are 30 m and 3 m, respectively.
Calculate the received signal power at the mobile receiver antenna and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the
received signal. 64
Example

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Examples:

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Noise power spectral density is

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Examples:
● Consider a transmitter which radiates a sinusoidal carrier frequency of 1850 MHz. For a
vehicle moving 60 mph, compute the received carrier frequency if the mobile is moving
Directly towards the transmitter,
Directly away from the transmitter,
In a direction which is perpendicular to the direction of arrival of the transmitted signal.

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Examples:
● Given: Carrier frequency = 1850MHz and
● Vehicle speed v = 60 mph = (60 x 1.6093 x 103) / 3600 = 26.82 m/s
● Therefore, wavelength

● (a) The vehicle is moving directly towards the transmitter.

● Note: The Doppler shift ( f v / c ) in this case is positive and the received frequency is
given by
● f = fc + fd =

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Examples:
(b) The vehicle is moving directly away from the transmitter.
●The Doppler shift in this case is negative and hence the received frequency is given by

(c)The vehicle is moving perpendicular to the angle of arrival of the transmitted

signal.

●In this case, θ = 90°, cosθ = 0, and there is no Doppler shift.

●The received signal frequency is the same as the transmitted frequency of 1850
MHz.

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Link Margin
● The receiver power where
● Pt : Transmitted Power,
● Gt and Gr : Transmitting & Receiving antenna gain Lp : path loss between the Tx and Rx

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Link Margin
● The receiver power

Where Pt : Transmitted Power,

● Gt and Gr : Transmitting & Receiving antenna gain
● Lp : path loss between the Tx and Rx

● Thermal Noise: N = kTBw

Noise Spectral Density N0 = N / Bw =kT
● k : Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23 W/Kelvin-Hz) T : temperature in Kelvin
● Bw : receiver bandwidth

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Link Margin
● Noise Figure

● Link Margin

08/03/2022 ICT 3272 Wireless Communication and Computing 77

Link Margin
● in dB
● M = Pt + Gt + Gr + Ag – Nf,total – Tk – Lp – Lf – L0 – Fmargin – R – (E0/N0)reqd dB

● Eb/N0 = Energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio is a normalized signal to noise
ratio (SNR) measure also known as SNR per bit

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Example
Given a flat rural environment with a path loss of 140 dB, a frequency of 900 MHz, 8 dB
transmit antenna gain and 0 dB receive antenna gain, data-rate of 9.6 kbps, 12 dB in antenna
feed line loss, 20 dB in other losses, a fade margin of 8 dB, a required Eb /N0 of 10 dB,
receiver amplifier gain of 24 dB, noise figure total of 6 dB, and a noise temperature of 290 K.
find the total transmit power required of the transmitter in watts for a link margin of 8 dB

08/03/2022 ICT 3272 Wireless Communication and Computing

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Example
● R = 9600 bps = 10 log (9600) = 10 X 3.9822 = 39.832
● Noise power spectral density is
N0 = (1.38 x 10-23 x 290) = 4.0020 x 10-21 = 10log (4.0020 x 10-21)= 10 x(-20.3977)= -203.97
where kB is Boltzmann’s constant, kB = 1.38 * 10−23 J/K,
● Noise power is Pn = N0B Watt or
● M = Pt + Gt + Gr + Ag – Nf,total – Tk – Lp – Lf – L0 – Fmargin – R – (E0/N0)reqd dB
● Pt dB = M - Gt - Gr – Ag + Nf,total + Tk + Lp + Lf + L0 + Fmargin + R + (E0/N0)reqd dB
= 8 - 8 - 0 – 24 + 6 – 203.97 + 140 +12 + 20 + 8 + 39.8 + 10
= 7.8 dBW
= 10 log (Pt) -> (7.8/10) = log Pt -> 100.78 = 6 W
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SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES
Both analog and digital information can be encoded as either analog or digital signals. The particular
encoding that is chosen depends on the specific requirements to be met and the media and communications
facilities available.
● Digital data, digital signals: The simplest form of digital encoding of digital data is to assign one voltage
level to binary one and another to binary zero. More complex encoding schemes are used to improve
performance, by altering the spectrum of the signal and providing synchronization capability.
● Digital data, analog signal: A modem converts digital data to an analog signal so that it can be transmitted
over an analog line. The basic techniques are amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK),
and phase shift keying (PSK). All involve altering one or more characteristics of a carrier frequency to
represent binary data.
● Analog data, digital signals: Analog data, such as voice and video, are often digitized to be able to use
digital transmission facilities. The simplest technique is pulse code modulation (PCM), which involves
sampling the analog data periodically and quantizing the samples.
● Analog data, analog signals: Analog data are modulated by a carrier frequency to produce an analog
signal in a different frequency band, which can be utilized on an analog transmission system. The basic
techniques are amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).
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Digital Data to Digital signal

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Digital data to Analog signal

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Analog data to Analog signal
● Uyfuy

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Analog data to Digital signal

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Modulation Techniques

08/03/2022 ICT 3272 Wireless Communication and Computing

Amplitude Shift Keying
● Encode 0/1 by different carrier amplitudes
Usually have one amplitude zero
● Susceptible to sudden gain changes
● Inefficient
● Used for
Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
Very high speeds over optical fiber

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Binary Frequency Shift Keying
● Most common is binary FSK (BFSK)
● Two binary values represented by two different frequencies (near carrier)
● Less susceptible to error than ASK
● Used for
up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
high frequency radio
even higher frequency on LANs using co-ax

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Multiple FSK (MFSK)
● Each signalling element represents more than one bit
● More than two frequencies used
● More bandwidth efficient
● More prone to error

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Multiple FSK (MFSK)

Source: Data and Computer communication, William Stallings, Ed8

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Multiple FSK (MFSK)

Source: Data and Computer communication, William Stallings, Ed8

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Phase Shift Keying
● Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data
● Binary PSK
Two phases represent two binary digits
● Differential PSK
Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some reference signal

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Quadrature PSK
● Get more efficient use if each signal element represents more than one bit
eg. shifts of π/2 (90o)
Each element represents two bits
Split input data stream in two & modulate onto carrier & phase shifted carrier
● Can use 8 phase angles & more than one amplitude
9600bps modem uses 12 angles, four of which have two amplitudes

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QPSK and OQPSK Modulators

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Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation Schemes
● Bandwidth
ASK/PSK bandwidth directly relates to bit rate
Multilevel PSK gives significant improvements
● In presence of noise:
Bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB superior to ASK and FSK
For MFSK & MPSK have tradeoff between bandwidth efficiency and error performance

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
● QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and some wireless
● Combination of ASK and PSK
● Logical extension of QPSK
● Send two different signals simultaneously on same carrier frequency
Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
Each carrier is ASK modulated
Two independent signals over same medium
Demodulate and combine for original binary output

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QAM Modulator

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QAM Variants
● Two level ASK
Each of two streams in one of two states
Four state system
Essentially QPSK
● Four level ASK
Combined stream in one of 16 states
● Have 64 and 256 state systems
● Improved data rate for given bandwidth
But increased potential error rate

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Effect of Noise on a Digital Signal
Contd..
● Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
● To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ratio of the signal power to the
noise power. The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as

● SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise).
● A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means the signal is
more corrupted by noise.
● SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR

100
Example
● The power of a signal is 10 mW, and the power of the noise is 1µW; what are the values of
SNR and SNRdB?

● SNR = = = 10000
● SNRdB = 10 log10 10000 = 10 x 4 = 40

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 Channel Capacity
● Channel capacity: maximum data rate at which data can be transmitted over a given
communication channel under given condition.
● Relate:
Data rate, C [bits per second]
Bandwidth, B [Hertz]
Noise
Error rate
● Two theoretical models:
Nyquist Capacity:assumes noise-free environment
Shannon Capacity:considers noise
 Nyquist Capacity
●Assumes channel that is noise free
●Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate is 2B
● Single signal element may carry more than 1 bit; signal with M levels may carry log2 M bits

C = 2B log2 M

●Tradeoffs:
● Increase the bandwidth, increases the data rate
● Increase the signal levels, increases the data rate
● Increase the signal levels, harder for receiver to interpret the bits (practical limit to M)
 Example of Nyquist Capacity

● A telephone system with modem allows bandwidth of 3100 Hz. What is the maximum data
rate? M=2
 Shannon Capacity
● With noise, some bits may be corrupted; higher data rate, more bits corrupted
●Increasing signal strength overcomes noise
●Signal-to-noise ratio:
signalpower
SNR =
noisepower
High SNR high-quality signal  less intermediate repeaters

●Shannon capacity: C = B log2 (1 + SNR)

●Tradeoffs:
Increase bandwidth or signal power, increases data rate
Increase of noise, reduces data rate
Increase bandwidth, allows more noise
Increase signal power, causes increased intermodulation noise
Example of Shannon and Nyquist Capacity
● A channel uses spectrum of between 3MHz and 4MHz, with SNRdB = 24dB. How many
signal levels are required to achieve Shannon capacity?
Example
● A channel has B=4kHz and SNR =30dB. Determine maximum information rate for 128
level encoding.
Solution
● Nyquist capacity=56kbps
● Shannon capacity=39.8kbps
● Smallest of two values decide channel capacity.
Spread Spectrum
● Important encoding method for wireless communications
● Analog & digital data with analog signal
● Spreads data over wide bandwidth
● Makes jamming and interception harder
● Two approaches, both in use:
Frequency Hopping
Direct Sequence

109
General Model of Spread Spectrum System

110
Spread Spectrum Advantages
● Immunity from noise and multipath distortion
● Can hide / encrypt signals
● Several users can share same higher bandwidth with little interference
CDM/CDMA Mobile telephones

111
Pseudorandom Numbers
● Generated by a deterministic algorithm
Not actually random
But if algorithm good, results pass reasonable tests of randomness
● Starting from an initial seed
● Need to know algorithm and seed to predict sequence
● Hence only receiver can decode signal

112
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
● Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of frequencies
● Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with transmitter
● Eavesdroppers hear unintelligible blips
● Jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits

113
Frequency Hopping Example

114
FHSS (Transmitter)

115
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Receiver)

116
Slow and Fast FHSS
● Commonly use multiple FSK (MFSK)
● Have frequency shifted every Tc seconds
● Duration of signal element is Ts seconds
● Slow FHSS has Tc  Ts
● Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts
● FHSS quite resistant to noise or jamming
● With fast FHSS giving better performance

117
Slow MFSK FHSS

118
Fast MFSK FHSS

119
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
● Each bit is represented by multiple bits using a spreading code
● This spreads signal across a wider frequency band
● Has performance similar to FHSS

120
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Example

121
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum System

122
DSSS Example Using BPSK

123
Approximate Spectrum of DSSS Signal

124
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
● A multiplexing technique used with spread spectrum
● Given a data signal rate D
● Break each bit into k chips according to a fixed chipping code specific to each user
● Resulting new channel has chip data rate kD chips per second
● Can have multiple channels superimposed

125
CDMA Example

126
CDMA for DSSS

127
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Concept of Spread Spectrum Modulation Bandwidth –
Using Shannon’s theorem and SNR
𝑆 � 𝑆
Channel Capacity 𝐶 = 𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1 + � = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 1 +
𝑁 �
𝑊� = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 ��
Changing bases �
2 𝑒
�
+
𝑊� 𝑆
𝑁� = (1/𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒2) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
�
1+ �
� 𝑆 �
𝑊𝐶 = 1.44 𝑙𝑜𝑔 � 1 +
𝑁 �
Expanding logarithmic expression
and neglecting higher order terms
� = 1.44 𝑆 or W 𝑵𝑪
�
� = 𝟏.𝟒𝟒
� 𝑁 𝑺
(approximation for wider bandwidth)
Example:
●If data rate is 32kbps and SNR is 0.001 (-30dB), then with the help of
Shannon’s theorem, find out the necessary bandwidth for Spread Spectrum signal.

Given: (S/N) = 0.001

𝑵
W= 𝑪 = ( 32 x 103 x 1000 ) / 1.44 = 22
𝟏.𝟒𝟒
𝑺 MHz

Note: The transmission bandwidth is much larger than the bandwidth. Operation with lower
value of SNR is achievable by spread spectrum.
Using much wider bandwidth than that of original data, it is possible to maintain the channel
capacity without increasing the transmitter output power. : Power – bandwidth trade-off
Maximum-Length (ML Sequences)
Pseudo-Noise (PN) codes fundamentals
• Properties of PN codes
1. Balance Property: In each period of sequence, the number of ones differs from that of zeros by
at most one digit
0001 0011 0101 111 → seven zeros and eight ones
2. Run length Property:
Number of runs = 8
000 1 00 11 0 1 0 1111
3 1 2 2 1 1 1 4
3. Autocorrelation Property:

1
𝑹𝒂 𝝉 [𝒂 − 𝒅]
𝑁
=
where 𝑐𝒂 : Number of agreements
d : Number of disagreements in one full period
Properties of PN sequence
PN Sequence is said to be pseudo-random if it satisfies the following conditions
● In every period, the number of +1’s differs from the number of -1’s by exactly 1 (Balance
property). Hence Nc is an odd number.
● In every period, half of the runs of the same sign have length 1, one-fourth have length 2,
one-eighth have length 3, and so forth. Also, the number of positive runs equals the number
of negative runs (run property).
● The autocorrelation of a period sequence is two valued, that is Nc for shifts 0, Nc, 2Nc, 3Nc
etc., and -1 otherwise ( without normalization).
Maximum-Length (ML Sequences)
Implementation:
● Using polynomial ( primitive polynomial) h(x)
h(x) = hpxp + h(p-1)x(p-1) + …………….+ h1x1 + h0x0
● Coefficients hi takes on the binary values 0 (no connection) and 1 (connection or feedback)
● hp and h0 are always 1 for any primitive polynomial
● Galois form is generally faster due to the reduced number of gates in the feedback loop.
Maximum-Length (ML Sequences)
● Code generator produces a binary-valued sequence.
● Sequence repeats after every Nc elements or chips.
● Transmission: Mostly as a bipolar waveform

● ML – LFSR sequences with autocorrelation property

Helps receiver to recognize and synchronize between received code and locally generated sequence.
Once the receiver locked to the dominant wave, little interference due to multipaths (delayed waves)
ML sequences used in channels with large delay spread in multipath
Example:
●Using a clock frequency of 10 MHz , if a shift register with 32 stages is used for generating
PN sequence, then compute the time to complete one cycle of sequence .

●Given: clock frequency = 10 MHz. Therefore tchip = 10-7 seconds. Total number of
chips in a period = Nc = 232 – 1 = 4.29 x 109

●Time to complete one cycle of sequence =Nc x tchip

= 4.29 x 109 x 10-7
= 4. 29 x 102
= 429 seconds.
Example:
●Draw a [3,1] PN code generator that realizes the polynomial given by h(x) = x3 + x + 1 and
generate [3,1] codes. Also draw the waveforms for the m-sequence (ML sequence) for 3
periods.

●Given: h(x) = x3 + x + 1 = h(x) = x3 + 0 + x + 1 with h0 = 1, h1 = 1, h2 = 0 and h3 = 1

Example:

Given: h(x) = x3 + x + 1
Number of chips in a period = 23 – 1 = 7
with the Say initial seed 111

111 output +1
011 +1
101 +1
010 –1
001 +1
100 –1
110 –1
111 +1
DSSS Transmitter and Receiver

Spectral density of a Binary PN Sequence

Bandwidth of PN : Bs = 2/tchip
Bandwidth of Msg: Bm = 1/tm
Processing Gaing (PG) = Bs/Bm
PG = 2tm/tchip
Example:

If the chip rate of a DSSS transmitter is 20 Mcps and the message bit rate is 10kbps, find out
the processing gain achieved. Assume the biphase modulation is used.

tchip = 1/(20 x 106). Bs = 2/ tchip = 40 x 106

Bm = 1/tm = 104
Processing Gain (PG) = Bs/Bm = 2 tm / tchip = 4000
Processing Gain in dB = 10 log10(PG) = 10 log10(4000) = 36dB
Example:
● A recorded conversation is to be transmitted by a PN spread spectrum system. The
speech is bandlimited to 3kHz and uses 128 quantization levels.
a. Find out the chip rate required to obtain a processing gain of 20dB
b. Given that the sequence length is to be greater than 5 hours, find out the number of shift
registers required.

Given: Speech bandwidth = 3kHz and Quantization levels = 128

● 128 quantization levels = 7 bits per sample used for represent 3 kHz signal requires a
sampling rate of 6 kHz ( Nyquist criteria) 6 kHz sampling rate = 6000 samples/second
Example: contd.
a. Find out the chip rate required to obtain a processing gain of 20d

Message bit rate ( in terms of bits per second)

= sampling rate x bits/sample
= 6000 samples/second x 7 bits /sample
= 42kbps
Message signal bit duration tm = 1/42kbps = 0.023 ms
Processing gain =20 dB = 10 log10(PG). PG = 102 =
100 Processing gain = 2tm/tchip
100 = 2 x (0.023 x 10-3) /tchip
tchip = (0.046 x 10-3)/100 = 0.46 s
Example: contd.
b. Given that the sequence length is to be greater than 5 hours, find out the number of shift
registers required.

●Sequence length = 5 hours = 5 x 60 x 60 = 18000 seconds

● 2p = (Nctchip) / tchip = 18000/0.46 x 10-6 = 3.9 x 1010 Number of

stages = p = p log 2 = p log(3.9x1010 )
● p = 35.23  36 stages required