MYCOTOXOGENIC MOLDS

Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by
organisms of the fungus kingdom,commonly known as molds.
Mycotoxins are commonly produced by
Aspergilus,pencillium,fusarium,Alternaria,Aflatoxin etc.
The consumption of mycotoxins cause acute and chronic diseases
in both humans as well as in animals.
 Aspergillus
Introduction:
Aspergilus is a common fungus.It is present everywhere (In the soil,air,water etc). It consists of
several 100 to 500 species, among which some are economically important and some are deleterious
i.e pathogenic.
Most predominantly, the Aspergilus species are found in the damp areas and decaying matter.
 Classification:
Kingdom: Fungi
Division:Ascomycota
Class:Eurotiomycetes
Order:Eurotiales
Family:Trichocomaceae
Genus:Aspergillus
 Features:
Aspergillus is also called black or green mould.
The species of aspergilus are also called Sac fungi because their sexual spores Produced within the
sacs called Asci.
The mode of nutrition is heterotophic which means they depend upon others for the nutrition and
food.
They can tolerate extreme environmental conditions such as high temperature.
Aspergilus species have two types of hyphae I.e vegetative and reproductive hyphae.
 Structure:
Aspergilus has a filamentous structure consist of the following components in its cell structure that
includes;
 Foot cell
 Coinidiophore
 Coinidia
 Mycelium
 Cytoplasm
 Reproduction:
Aspergillus reproduce by the following ways are;
 Vegetative Reproduction:
Vegetative reproduction occurs by the fragmentation method.In this, vegetative hyphae breaks
into few fragments which develops into new vegetative body.
 Asexual Reproduction:
Firstly, foot cell develops a small outgrowth by absorbing nutrients From the substratum.
Then, foot cell give rise to the long and slender Hyphae called coinidiophore.
After that,coinidiophore grow and enlarges by nuclear division and form vesicles.
The vesicle grow and undergoes mitotic nuclear divisions to form sterigmata Which is then
transfer to the secondary sterigmata.
Aspergillus reproduce by the following ways are;
 Vegetative Reproduction:
Vegetative reproduction occurs by the fragmentation method.In this, vegetative hyphae breaks into
few fragments which develops into new vegetative body.
 Asexual Reproduction:
Firstly, foot cell develops a small outgrowth
by absorbing nutrients From the substratum.
Then, foot cell give rise to the long and slender
Hyphae called coinidiophore.
After that,coinidiophore grow and enlarges by
nuclear division and form vesicles.
The vesicle grow and undergoes mitotic nuclear divisions to form sterigmata Which is then transfer
to the secondary sterigmata.
 Sexual Reproduction:
The sexual Reproduction occurs only in the heterothalic Species that contain both Male and female hyphae.
The female hyphae called ascogonium and
Male hyphae is called Anthredium.
First both hyphae contacts each other.
After the fusion occurs between Male
and female hyphae.
Plasmogamy occurs in ascogonium other
which cytoplasmic division takes place.
After plasmogamy,the ascogonium develops
into fruiting body called ascocarp where the
karyogamy occurs.
After the maturation of ascocarp, a protective layer Peridium eventually forms.
Then by the maturation of Asci,the ascospores releases out by the lysis of Asci and
through the wall of the ascocarp wall.
The ascospores remain dormant in the environment.
On favourable conditions,they germinate a new vegetative hyphae by the formation of a
germ tube.
Penicillium
 Introduction
 Penicillium belongs to kingdom FUNGI.
 Division : ASCOMYCOTA
 Class : EUROTIOMYCETES
 FAMILY : TRICHOCOMACEAE

Occurrence
They are cosmopolitan genus.
Commonly called as green mold
Found in variety of habitat citrus fruits , jellies , food stuffs , old leather paper .
Conidia of Penicillium are present everywhere in soil and air.
 CELL STRUCTURE
Hyphae is septate.
Each cell is uninucleate.
The cell wall is microfibril and in Penicillium notatum
it is of 3 layers.
The outer layer is made of glucan.
The next layer is made up of protein.
The third layer is made up of chitin fibrils embedded
in granular
matrix.
The inner most layer is made up of pectin and hemicellulose.
the reserve food is in the form of oil globules.
The adjacent cells are connected by pores present
in the septa of their walls.
 Reproduction
It reproduces by
 Vegetative reproduction
 Asexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction

Vegetative reproduction:
It takes place by fragmentation.
During fragmentation the hyphae breaks into short fragments.
That grows by repeated division into new mycelium.
Asexual reproduction
It takes place by the formation of conidia.
Conidia are produced on special hyphae called conidiophore.
The conidia are erect , brown and broom like in fashion.
Each branch bear short branch at its tip called metulae
At each metulae there are bottle shaped sterigmata
Conidia are produced in chain at these sterigmata
Whole group of sterigmata and metulae are called
penicillus
 Sexual reproduction
It is the perfect state of Penicillium
All the species are homothelic
The sexual reproduction is oogamous
Male sex organ is called anthridia
Female sex organ is called ascogonia
 Viral diseases
 Keratitis
 It is a condition in which the eyes cornea becomes inflamed.
 The condition is often marked by the intense pain in eyes.
 This disease is cured by taking antifungal
 eyedrops and oral anti fungal medication
 Otomycosis
 It is the fungal infection in outer ear causing pain and itching
 Sometimes the fluid leaks from the ear.
 The infection can cause feeling of fullness in the ear and also cause hearing loss.
 People have diabetes and weak immune system are more likely to get this disease.
 Alternaria
o Alternaria is a fungus causing leaf blight and other diseases on over 380 host species of plant.
o It is an opportunistic pathogen on numerous hosts causing leaf spots , rots and blights on many
plant parts.
o Alternaria species are known as major plant pathogens. They are also common allergens in human ,
causing hay fever or hypersensitivity reactions that sometimes lead to Asthma.
o It can also cause upper respiratory tract infection and asthma in humans with compromised
immunity.
 Alternaria belongs to kingdom Fungi.
 Division : Ascomycota
 Class : Dothideomycetes
 Family : Pleosporaceae
Occurrence
Alternaria species are pathogenic and saprophytic fungi widely distributed in soil. In addition to cereal
crops, Alternaria species have been reported to occur in oilseeds such as sunflower and rapeseed,
tomato, apples, citrus fruits, olives and several other fruits and vegetables.
Cell Structure
Alternaria grows as long chains with dark brown conidiophores. They are typically club shaped and are
highly septate, having divisions in both vertical and horizontal direction. They have septate hyphae.
They thrive in environments with moisture and good nutrition, producing asexual spores known as
conidiospores (conidia). The spores are large and appear dark.
 Reproduction
Alternaria reproduce only by conidia which are produced at the tips of conidiophores.
Alternaria has no sexual or perfect stage. They multiply asexually by the method of Sporulation. The
septa dividing the spore ( conidia) into the cells are both transverse and vertical and their number is
not fixed, may be 5-10 transverse septa and a few longitudinal one.
How Alternaria produce in Plants?
Wind currents can carry Alternaria a long distance. Alternaria can also spread within the field by
splashing water. Wet, rainy weather favors disease.
Spores are produced on the plant surface and are spread by moving infected plant material.
Symptoms
Most common symptoms of Alternaria disease is yellow, dark brown to black circular leaf spots with
target like concentric rings. Lesion centers may fall out, giving the leaf spots coalesce into large
necrotic areas and leaf drop can occur.
Treatment
 Treatment for Alternaria requires fungicide to be sprayed directly on infected plants.
 Maintain adequate plant spacing to allow for good aeration to reduce humidity levels around plants.
Plants most effected :
Important host plants include a variety of crops such as apples, broccoli, cauliflower, carrots, potatoes,
Chinese cabbage, tomatoes and citrus, plus many plants used as ornamentals and a number of
weeds. Alternaria generally attacks the aerial parts of its host.
Alternaria in Home :
Alternaria is predominantly an outdoor family of molds, so any growth that happens in your home
likely began with spores from outside. Alternaria prefers plants and wood for growth. But if it finds
its way insides, it can colonize on tiles, drywall, plywood and even paint and polyurethane.
Treatment :
You can handle cleaning small areas covered in common household mold with a DIY cleaner. First
protect yourself by wearing gloves, goggles, and a respirator before starting work. Next, spray
down mold with a mixture of one cup vinegar, one cup borax, and a gallon of warm water.
Some species of Alternaria :
Alternaria alternata : causes stem canker of tomato
Alternaria brassicae : infest many vegetables and roses
Alternaria Citri : causes black rot on citrus plants
Alternaria dauci : grows on carrot
 Fusarium
  A mold of a large genus of filamentous fungi includes a number that cause plant disease, especially
wilting widely distributed in plants.
 Most species are harmless saprobes . Relatively abundant members of soil microbial community .
 The name of Fusarium comes from Latin “Fusus” meaning “spindle” .

Division : Ascomycota
Family : Nectriaceae
Class : Sordariomycetes
How Fusarium effect plants ?
Fusarium species are the common cause of plant disease. They are known to infect all parts of plant
and induce cell death. During growth an array of toxins that are both phototoxic and mycotoxic.
Wilting symptoms of Fusarium in Plants :
Fusarium symptoms include yellowing , stunting, death of seeding, yellowing of older plants. Xylem
tissues turn brown and plant may die.
Most susceptible food crops are :
Sweat Potato
Melon
Bananas
These are most susceptible to get fusarium.
Prevention :
The best way to prevent crops is “Rotation” and “Sterilization”.
Fusarium Effects on Humans :
Fusarium species cause a wide spectrum of infection in human ranging from superficial and locally invasive
with the most prevalent infection to disseminated with the most prevalent infections being.
a. Onychomycosis (fungal infection of nails)
b. Skin Infections
c. Keratitis (inflammation of Cornea)
Treatment :
It has not been confirmed but high dose “Amphotericin B” can be the drug of choice. Among patients
with disseminated form of fusarium infection, the mortality rate is high (range 50% - 80%).
Introduction
Aflatoxins belongs to :
Phylum : Ascomycota
Class : Eurotiomycetes
Order : Eurotiales
Family : Trichocomaceae
 Aflatoxins are various poisonous carcinogens and mutagens that are produced by certain
molds.
 The main fungi that produce aflatoxins are
1. Aspergillus flavus
2. Aspergillus parasiticus
3. Aspergillus nomius
 Under humid conditions , these fungi are produced in
1. Groundnuts , maize , sorghum , rice species and other agricultural products
2. Livestock feeds
3. Medicinal herbs
 Alfatoxin contamination can occur at any stage of food production
 From pre harvest to storage stages of food production
 Aflatoxin accumulation is dependent upon
o Environmental factors such as
 Moisture
 Temperature
o Plant density
o Poor harvest practices
o Improper grain storage
 The removal of aflatoxins is very difficult due to their
 Stability and thermal resistance in dried products
 Stable at a pH range of 3 to 10
 Resistant to food processing
They remain unchanged throughout the food chain

Classification of aflatoxin
There are more than 20 types of known aflatoxin , but the 4 main ones are
Aflatoxin B1 (AFT_ B1)
Aflatoxin B2 (AFT_B2)
Aflatoxin G1 (AFT_G1)
 AFTs B series are produced by
Aflatoxin G2 (AFT_G2)  A.flavus , A.parasiticus , A.nomius
 AFTs G series are produced by
 A.parasiticus , A.nomius
Names based on their
• blue (B) or green (G) flouresence under UV light
• Relative mobility , 1 and 2 higher and lower respectively by , TLC
Other members of aflatoxin family are
 AFT_M1 and AFT_M2
 are oxidative forms of AFT_B1
 Modified in the digestive tract of animals
 Isolated from milk , urine and feces
The level of toxicity associated with aflatoxin varies with the types present
AFT_B1 >AFT_G1 >AFT_B2 >AFT_G2
 Health consequences of aflatoxin
Aflatoxin are of great concern to the public health because of their ability to
 Accumulate in the body
 Found in edible tissues of animals such as liver and muscles
 Found in animal food products such as eggs and milk
 Found in human maternal breast milk and maternal cord blood
 Exposure to aflatoxin can lead to several health-related conditions including
 Acute and chronic aflatoxicosis
 Aflatoxin_-related immune suppression
 Liver disease ( liver cancer and liver cirrhosis )
 Adverse pregnancy outcomes including
• Intrauterine growth restriction
• Premature delivery
• Pregnancy loss

 Nutrition-related problems in children such as stunted growth

 Mutagenesis
 Aflatoxicosis
 Poisoning caused by the consumption of substances or foods contaminated with aflatoxins

 Symptoms
 Vomiting
 Abdominal pain
 Liver necrosis with elevated hepatic enzymes and bilirubin
 Prolonged clotting times
 Decreased production of milk and eggs in animals
 Growth impairment in the young
 Reduced immune competence

 Treatment
 There is no specific treatment for alfatoxicosis
 Since they do not accumulate and persist in body tissues, birds do recover from moderate intoxication after the
contaminated feed has been removed.
 Permissible level of aflatoxin in food
The recommended maximum level of aflatoxins in human foods is 4 ppb according to European
Community

 Foods high in aflatoxins

Aflatoxins can occur in foods such as groundnuts, tree nuts, maize, rice, figs and other dried foods,
spices, crude vegetable oils and cocoa beans, as a result of fungal contamination before and after
harvest.
 Safe level in some foods
 Milk: 0.5µg/kg