Network Layer

Routing
UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS

 A routing table can be either static or dynamic.

 A static table is one with manual entries.
 A dynamic table is one that is updated automatically
when there is a change somewhere in the Internet.
 A routing protocol is a combination of rules and
procedures that lets routers in the Internet inform each
other of changes.
Autonomous systems
Popular routing protocols
Distance vector routing

Bellman Ford Algorithm or Ford Fulkerson Algorithm

Distance vector routing tables
Initialization of tables in distance vector routing

In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing table with its immediate
neighbors periodically (30s) and when there is a change.
Updating in distance vector routing
Problem with distance vector routing

 A problem with distance-vector routing is that

any decrease in cost (good news) propagates
quickly, but any increase in cost (bad news) will
propagate slowly.
The problem is referred to as count to infinity. It
sometimes takes several updates before the cost
for a broken link is recorded as infinity by all
routers.
LINK STATE ROUTING

 Link state routing has a different philosophy from that of

distance vector routing.

 In link state routing, if each node in the domain has the entire
topology of the domain—the list of nodes and links, how they
are connected including the type, cost (metric), and the condition
of the links (up or down)—the node can use the Dijkstra
algorithm to build a routing table.
Concept of link state routing
 Building Routing Tables
 Creation of the states of the links by each
node, called the link state packets (LSP)
 Dissemination of LSPs to every other
routers, called flooding (efficiently)
 Formation of a shortest path tree for each
node
 Calculation of a routing table based on the
shortest path tree
 Creation of LSP
• LSP data: E.g. the node ID, the list of links, a
sequence number, and age.
• LSP Generation
– When there is a change in the topology of
the domain
– On a periodic basis
• There is no actual need for this type of LSP,
normally 60 minutes or 2 hours
Dijkstra algorithm
Example of formation of shortest path
tree
Forming shortest path three for router A in a graph
Areas in an autonomous system
Types of links
Point-to-point link
Transient link
Stub link
PATH VECTOR
ROUTING
 Distance vector and link state routing are both interior routing
protocols.
 They can be used inside an autonomous system. Both of these
routing protocols become intractable when the domain of
operation becomes large.
 Distance vector routing is subject to instability if there is
more than a few hops in the domain of operation.
 Link state routing needs a huge amount of resources to calculate
routing tables. It also creates heavy traffic because of flooding.
 There is a need for a third routing protocol which we call path
vector routing.
Initial routing tables in path vector routing
Stabilized tables for three autonomous
systems
Internal and external BGP
sessions

BGP supports classless addressing and CIDR.

Unicasting

In unicasting, the router forwards the received packet through only one of its
interfaces.
Multicasting

In multicasting, the router may forward the received packet through several of
its interfaces.
 Exercise
1. Consider a network with five nodes, N1 to N5, as shown below.

The network uses a Distance Vector Routing protocol. Once the routes have stabilized, the
distance vectors at different nodes are as following. N1: (0, 1, 7, 8, 4)
N2: (1, 0, 6, 7, 3) N3: (7, 6, 0, 2, 6) N4: (8, 7, 2, 0, 4) N5: (4, 3, 6, 4, 0)
Each distance vector is the distance of the best known path at the instance to nodes, N1 to
N5, where the distance to itself is 0. Also, all links are symmetric and the cost is identical in
both directions. In each round, all nodes exchange their distance vectors with their
respective neighbors. Then all nodes update their distance vectors. In between two rounds,
any change in cost of a link will cause the two incident nodes to change only that entry in
their distance vectors. The cost of link N2-N3 reduces to 2(in both directions). After the next
round of updates, what will be the new distance vector at node, N3.
(A) (3, 2, 0, 2, 5)
(B) (3, 2, 0, 2, 6)
(C) (7, 2, 0, 2, 5)
(D) (7, 2, 0, 2, 6)
 Exercise
1. Consider a network with five nodes, N1 to N5, as shown below.

The network uses a Distance Vector Routing protocol. Once the routes have stabilized, the
distance vectors at different nodes are as following. N1: (0, 1, 7, 8, 4)
N2: (1, 0, 6, 7, 3) N3: (7, 6, 0, 2, 6) N4: (8, 7, 2, 0, 4) N5: (4, 3, 6, 4, 0)
Each distance vector is the distance of the best known path at the instance to nodes, N1 to
N5, where the distance to itself is 0. Also, all links are symmetric and the cost is identical in
both directions. In each round, all nodes exchange their distance vectors with their
respective neighbors. Then all nodes update their distance vectors. In between two rounds,
any change in cost of a link will cause the two incident nodes to change only that entry in
their distance vectors. 52. The cost of link N2-N3 reduces to 2(in both directions). After the
next round of updates, what will be the new distance vector at node, N3.
(A) (3, 2, 0, 2, 5)
(B) (3, 2, 0, 2, 6)
(C) (7, 2, 0, 2, 5) N3: (7, 2, 0, 2, 6)
(D) (7, 2, 0, 2, 6) N3 knows (1,0,2,7,3) from N2 and (8,7,2,0,4) from N4.
N3: (3,2,0,2,5)
Exercise
2. Consider the same data as given in previous question.

After the update in the previous question, the link N1-N2 goes down. N2 will

reflect this change immediately in its distance vector as cost, infinite. After the

NEXT ROUND of update, what will be cost to N1 in the distance vector of N3?

(A) 3

(B) 9

(C) 10

(D) Infinite
Exercise
2. Consider the same data as given in previous question.

After the update in the previous question, the link N1-N2 goes down. N2 will

reflect this change immediately in its distance vector as cost, infinite. After the

NEXT ROUND of update, what will be cost to N1 in the distance vector of N3?

(A) 3
N1: (0,infinity,3,8,4)
(B) 9 N2: (infinity,0,2,4,3)
N3: (3,2,0,2,5)
(C) 10 N4: (8,4,2,0,4)
N5: (4,3,5,4,0)
(D) Infinite After the next round of exchange, N3 knows
the distance vector (infinity,0,2,4,3) from N2
and (8,4,2,0,4) from N4.
So N3 will update its distance vector to
(10,2,0,2,5).