L E A 4 P C M — J:

FINALS PRESENTA
T I
GROUP
IV
O N
 Table oF
C ONTEN
01 SINGLE SYMBOL
TS
MAPPING
02 GRADUATED MAPPING

03 SPATIAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

04 CRIME ANALYSIS PRODUCT FORMAT AND DISSEMINATION

1. Factors to Consider
2. Methods oF Dissemination
3. Components oF Crime Analysis Products
4. Types oF Crime Analysis Products
5. General Crime Analysis Product Elements
6. Map Design Elements
7. Evaluating the Utility oF Crime Analysis and Mapping Products
I. Spatial Analysis Techniques
The spatial analysis techniques include different
techniques and the characteristics of point, line, and
polygon data sets.

This section describes and illustrates basic types of

mapping that are most commonly used and data
classifications that are available in a GIS.

This section is meant to serve as a guide and reference

for these types of mapping rather than as a “how to”
guide for creating crime analysis maps.
II. Single Symbol Mapping
Single symbol mapping refers to the use of individual
symbols to represent point, line, and polygon features.

The utility of single symbol maps is that they allow for

a detailed analysis of small amounts of data.
Single Symbol
MAPPING
Single symbol mapping refers to the use of individual symbols to represent point, line, and polygon
features.

The utility of single symbol maps is that they allow for a detailed analysis of small amounts of data.
Single Symbol
MAPPING
This following is an example of an inadequate single symbol map. This map has too much data for this scale,
which is why this method is primarily used for small amounts of data.
Single Symbol
MAPPING
A drawback of single symbol mapping is that if two incidents have the same address, they are placed exactly on
top of one another and cannot be differentiated by looking at the map. The following map is a better example of
single symbol mapping that uses an appropriate scale. However, to avoid confusion since the points may still be
placed on top of one another, one should list the number of incidents in the legend, as is done here or place a
number (2) next to a location with more than one incident.
Single Symbol
MAPPING
Because single symbol maps are more useful for small amounts of data, they are particularly useful for tactical
crime analysis and mapping crime patterns. In addition, they allow a more detailed look at the geography
surrounding the incidents. For example, the following map illustrates the same burglary incidents as above with
the land parcels drawn that show the number of houses on each block and which were burglarized.
Single Symbol
MAPPING
The next map depicts the same data as well as centerline streets with the digitized orthophotograph of the
neighborhood that shows the actual houses and surroundings of the burglary locations.
Single Symbol
MAPPING
Finally, this map depicts the parcels, orthophotographs, street centerlines, and burglary incident data together.
This map could assist in determining additional characteristics of the burglary pattern by examining neighborhood
characteristics such as proximity to alleyways or shrubbery, and in responding to the problem by determining
potential surveillance locations.
Single Symbol
MAPPING
Single symbol mapping is also helpful in representing geographic data such as schools or churches in that it is
known that they are discrete addresses and the risk of two points on top of one another is low. The following is
an example of schools in a single symbol map. The user should be aware of the readability of the map in
order to determine what is “too much” data.
III. G r a d u a t e d M a p p i n g
Graduated mapping consists of aggregating data into
groupings that are displayed on the map. These
groupings can be graduated by size or by color and can be
classified statistically in various ways.
G R A D U AT E D Graduation By Size
M A PPI N G
Graduation By Color

Classification Methods

Natural Breaks
Quantile
Equal Area
Equal Interval
Standard Deviation
Custom
G R A D U AT E D Graduation By Size
M A PPI N G Graduated size mapping is the process by which
data are summarized so that symbols (point or
line features) are altered in size to reflect the
frequencies in the data.
In this type of map, more than one incident at a
given point or line is represented with a larger
symbol or a thicker line.

Similar to single symbol mapping, this type of map

is most helpful with smaller amounts of data, since
too many incidents make the map unclear and
difficult to read.

The map is an example where size is difficult to

determine and points are overlapping.
G R A D U AT E D Graduation By Size
M A PPI N G This type of map is more useful when mapping
law enforcement tabular data when the scale is
smaller.
G R A D U AT E D Graduation By Color
M A PPI N G In graduated color mapping, symbols (point, line,
or polygon features) are altered in color to
reflect a particular value of the feature.
Features can be graduated by any variable. Law
enforcement variables include shading by
date/time, by priority, by crime type, by number of
crimes at a location or in an area, or by crime rate
of an area.

The map contains points that are shaded by their

date of occurrence and shows the progression
from older to the most recent incidents, which are
in dark red However, each location must only
represent one incident since it would be
impossible to shade one point with data from two
incidents.

As with single symbol mapping, this map is most

helpful when examining a small number of cases
within crime patterns.
G R A D U AT E D Graduation By Color
M A PPI N G This method can also be used for line and
polygon features. The next map is an example of
parks shaded by whether or not they contain
public bathroom facilities, which could impact
the type of criminal activity in that park.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Natural Breaks
This is the default classification in most GIS
programs and identifies the natural break points
within the data using a statistical formula.

The software program examines the selected data

and their distribution, identifies natural break
points, and creates the categories based on the
best fit to the data. With each data set, the
natural breakswould
classification resultin different
categories; ranges of thus, the
dependent.” classification is “data
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Natural Breaks
The following is an example of points graduated by
size. Note in the legend that the categories do not
make much sense, in that they are not evenly
distributed or have equal number of values in each.
This is because the ranges are determined by the
GIS and the nature of the data distribution
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Natural Breaks
The following is an example of polygons graduated
by color.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Quantile
Each class contains the same number of data
points.
That is, if there are 100 cases in the data, the GIS
sorts them by their values and with five categories,
includes the value range for the first 20 cases, the
second 20, and so on. Similar to the natural breaks
classification, the quantile classification is data
dependent.

The following is an example of points graduated by

size.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Quantile
The following is an example of polygons graduated
by color.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Equal Area
This classification applies to polygon features only
and determines categories so that the total area of
the polygons in each class is approximately the
same.

This method is similar to the quantile classification;

however, it looks to the square mileage or other
appropriate units of the geographic areas in each
class versus the number of data points. Thus, in a
legend with five classifications, each category will
contain polygons that make up 20% of the total
area of the polygons in the analysis.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Equal Interval
Divides the range of attribute values into equal size
sub-ranges.

The following is an example of points graduated by

size. In this case, categories are This
the
classification is still even. on data
dependent
distribution, since as the range of the distribution
changes so does the categories. For example, the in a
data distribution ranging from 1 to 200, the
categories would be 1-40, 40-80 and so on.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Equal Interval
The following is an example of polygons graduated
by color.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Standard Deviation
The mean value and standard deviations of the
geographic features are computed, and the features
are shaded according to which category they fall
within.

This classification does not display the actual values

of the feature but shows categories of one, two, or
three standard deviations above or below the mean.
The values behind the classification can be viewed
through another function, depending on the
GIS software. This classification allows
identification of outliers in a distribution and
comparison of data with different distributions
(would be displayed in two different maps),
since the measures of a normal distribution give
a common denominator of relative difference.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Standard Deviation
The following is an example of points graduated by
size.

This classification is dependent on the data

distribution. Notice that the mean value is not
displayed on either one of these maps. Also, in this
map there is only one standard deviation below the
mean and two above. This indicates that most of
the points fall closely around the mean.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Standard Deviation
The following is an example of polygons graduated
by color.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Custom
User determined ranges.

This is the only classification that is not determined

by the software and by the characteristics of the
data but by the analyst. This method is best for
comparing crime or other law enforcement
information over time.

For instance, calls for service totals and the nature

of the distributions tend to be different from month
to month. If a classification that is data dependent
is used, the colors or size of the symbols will vary
in value from map to map. A custom range can
be created in which the values for each color or size
are the same every month and on every map,
which allows comparison.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Custom
It is recommended that when doing a monthly or
yearly comparison using custom ranges, that several
months or years of data be examined to determine
the most appropriate ranges. For this reason, it is
best to make the upper limit of the highest range
unlimited and use the phrase “or more” as a label
(see below) to account for differences. Subjective
considerations may also dictate the ranges. For
example, in a department that fines properties with
more than five false alarm calls for service, the
graduation may distinguish between locations with
more and less than five calls for service.

The following is an example of points graduated by

size.
G R A D U AT E D Classification Methods
M A PPI N G Custom
The following is an example of polygons graduated
by color.
IV. Crime Analysis Produ ct
Format and Dissemination
The effectiveness of any crime analysis or mapping endeavor has
as much to do with the presentation of the results as it does
the analysis. If the resulting document of analysis is not legible
and understandable to its audience, it is worthless.

The following is a discussion of factors to consider when

developing a final product, such as methods of dissemination,
components of a crime analysis product, and types of crime
analysis products.

Included also are recommendations for elements of a crime

analysis product and elements of a map. These are distinguished
from one another since maps include additional elements such as
a legend, North arrow, and scale.
 FA C T O R S TO FA C T O R S TO
C ONSIDE C ONSIDE
R
When developing a crime analysis
R
In addition, are also
product, one must consider both the there
audiences many crime
purpose and audience of the product. products. Theyfor cananalysis police
Crime analysis products can serve department includepersonnel, the
many purposes, from Informing general community groups, business
public,
citizens about recent activity, to groups, school officials, or city
assisting the agency in planning, to council members. By gauging
apprehending a suspected criminal. the
needs, expectations, and skill level
of these individuals, products that
are appropriate for each group
can be developed.
FA C T O R S TO
C ONSID
ER
It may be appropriate to include a brief notation on the map,
such as “law enforcement use only” or “external use” to
indicate the intended audience.

In general, when producing a crime analysis product, the

needs of users of the information need to be balanced with
political, legal, and ethical concerns.
M E T H O D S O F DISSEMINATION
Methods oF dissemination oF a product inherently rely on the intended
01 purpose and audience. They also rely on the means available, such as the
Internet and Intranet capabilities, reverse 911 technology, or the newspaper.
e.g. A crime analyst may want to let officers know that there is a sexual assault
pattern happening in a certain part of the city and provide them with detailed
information about the pattern. The analyst, of course, would not provide this
information on the Internet for the public to see, but instead may include selected
information on fliers to hand out at a briefing, send a department-wide (internal) e-mail,
or attend the briefings of the officers in the affected areas. Thus, the purpose,
informing the patrol officers in an area, dictates how that information should be
disseminated.
M E T H O D S O F D I S S E M I N AT I O N
T h e a n a l y s t m u s t a l s o c o n s i d e r w h a t i s t h e m o s t eFFicient a n d eFFective
02 m e t h o d oF dissemination, b e c a u s e Frequently, t h e e a s i e s t m e t h o d i s n o t the
m o s t eFFective.
e.g. For example, it may be simple to publish a crime pattern bulletin and e-mail it
to the department or place fliers on a table in the briefing room for officers to read.
But if the officers do not regularly check their e-mail or the table is full of other
similar fliers, these methods of dissemination may be ineffective and a more
time-consuming method, such as attending briefings, may be warranted.
M E T H O D S O F D I S S E M I N AT I O N
T h e m o s t eFFective w a y t o d i s s e m i n a t e inFormation d e p e n d s o n t h e c u r r e n t
03 speciFic c i r c u m s t a n c e s oF t h e department, a n d t h e a n a l y s t s h o u l d co n t i n u al l y
p a y a tt e n t i o n t o w h a t i s a p p ro p r i a t e a n d eFFective.
 COMPONENTS OF CRIME ANALYSIS
PRODUCTS

TABLES CHARTS MAPS GRAPHS IMAGES NARRATIVES

COMPONENTS OF CRIME ANALYSIS PRODUCTS

TABLES CHARTS MAPS GRAPHS IMAGES NARRATIVES

In a law enforcement setting, a balance of one or more of these components should be

used in any one product, and including all or just one component should be avoided.

For example, a two-page essay on the recent burglary activity in Beat 33 will not be as
effective as a simple description of the pattern, a table of the relevant information, a chart
depicting the time of day and day of week of the activity, and a map that indicates where
the activity is occurring. Conversely, a crime analysis product should not contain only a
map or a chart. Even though a map or chart should be produced to stand on its own, the
crime analyst should also include additional information such as interesting findings,
interpretation of the results, and recommendations for future analysis.
TYPES OF Crime Bulletins
CR I ME A N A L YS I S PR O
D U CT S
Memos

Weekly/Monthly/Quarterly Reports
and Maps

Annual Reports

Research Reports

Special Reports
TYPES OF Crime Bulletins
CR I ME A N A L YS I S PR O Short one to two-page documents that describe a
D U CT S tactical short-term trend or pattern.

Memos
A document in letter form that summarizes a request,
explains the analysis, highlights the interesting
findings, and, in some ca s es , makes
recommendations for re sponse or further analysis.
These should b e included as cover letters for
research and special reports.

Weekly/monthly/quarterly reports and

maps
Documents and maps that convey the same
information in regular intervals to inform about activity
and allow for identifying problems. These products
should be consistently formatted to ensure
recognizability by customers and allow comparison.
TYPES OF Annual Reports
CR I ME A N A L YS I S PR O Reports that provide information aggregated by year
D U CT S and are published on a yearly basis. They would
include breakdowns by geography, months, and types
of activity (e.g., types of crime, types of calls, and
accidents) and comparisons among years. They might
also include comparisons to other similar jurisdictions
as well as to state and national figures.

Research Reports
Reports that provide a description of the data,
methodology, and analysis of a research project (i.e.,
problem solving project or evaluation of a program)
as well as the results of the analysis, interpretations
of the findings, and recommendations for re sponse or
future research.
Special Reports
These are reports that are requested on an ad hoc
basis and address a particular issue such as traffic
accidents around s c h o o l s or efficient allocation of a
new squad of officers. These special reports make
up much of the daily work of the crime analyst.
 G E N E R A L C R I M E A N A LY S I S
PRODUCT ELEMENTS

01 TITLE

02 FILE PATH

03 CREDITS/DATE

04 TEXT, TABLES, GRAPHICS, AND/OR MAPS

05 ANALYSIS SUMMARY

06 DISCLAIMERS

07 RECOMMENDATIONS
G E N E R A L C R I M E A N A LY S I S Title
PR O D U CT E L E ME N T S Includes the nature of the data and geography
included as well as the time span included.
(e.g. “Citizen Generated C a l l s for Service in Precinct
9: January 1, 2001 through June 30, 2001.”)

File Path
This is where the document is located. This is
important, s o that future requests for the report, an
update, or similar report can b e easily filled. This
assists the analyst in finding the product versus
redoing it.
(e.g. F :\Part I Crime 2001\Auto
Theft\JanuaryReport.doc. )
Credits/Date
This includes the name or divisions of the individual(s)
who created the report and the date it was created.
This allows for the analysts to get credit, for others to
direct questions about the product to the appropriate
people, and for everyone to know when the product
was disseminated.

(e.g. “Prepared by Crime Analysis Unit, December,

2001” or “Prepared by Jane Doe, 01/06/02.”)
G E N E R A L C R I M E A N A LY S I S Text, tables, graphics, and/or maps
PR O D U CT E L E ME N T S This is the substantive content of the product and
what is included varies from product to product.
Analysis Summary
This is an interpretation of the data and interesting
findings and is important to ensure appropriate
interpretations of the data and results by others. This
section is often omitted from crime analysis products

Disclaimers
This information details what the data and analysis
results do not say.

(e.g. conclusions drawn from any report containing

crime information can only b e made about crimes
known to the police, not all crime.)

Recommendations
This section would contain suggestions for future
analysis or actions b a s ed on the results. It is
considered optional and may not always b e included
in a crime analysis product.
M A P DESIGN
E L E ME N T S TITLE

LEGEND

GEOCODING RATE

LABELS

SCALE BAR

NORTH DIRECTIONAL

CREDITS/DATE
M A P DESIGN Title
E L E ME N T S Similar to the title of a general crime analysis product,
the title of a map should contain the nature of the
data and geography included as well as
the time span included.
Legend
This element lists the tabular and geographic
data sources displayed in the map
and indicates the symbols that are used to
represent each data source. In addition, in
the case of a map that includes
graduation by color or size,the classification
used should also be listed. This will allow the
reader to understand the divisions of the categories
and the analysis that has been conducted.
(e.g. , “Classification = Natural Breaks” or
“Quantile Classification.”)
Geocoding rate
As with statistics and tables that are presented in
social science, data that are missing from the map
should be noted. In the case of a map, this would be
displayed as a percentage of the data that have been
successfully geocoded.
(e.g. “Geocoding Rate = 99%.” )
M A P DESIGN Labels
E L E ME N T S Should be used in moderation and where appropriate
within the map. Labels should orient users to the map
as well as highlight analytical results.
Scale Bar
Describes the distance units used in the map.
North Directional
Indicates the geographic orientation of the map

Credits/Date
As in the general crime analysis product, this contains the name or division of the individual who
produced the map as well as the date it was created.

Note:
These elements are specific to maps
and even though maps should
basically stand on their own,
supplemental description and
interpretation of the analysis should
be included.
M A P DESIGN The image below shows an example of a map with
E L E ME N T S all of these elements.
 E V A L U A T I N G T H E U T I L I TY O F
CRIME ANALYSIS AND M A P P I N G P R O D U C TS

Finally, a feedback mechanism for crime analysis products is important

to determine both their relevance and effectiveness. Customer
surveys, informal discussions, and/or focus groups can be used to learn
whether a product is serving its intended purpose and is useful to its
audience. In addition, it is necessary for the analysts themselves to
review and reevaluate current crime analysis products.
 E V A L U A T I N G T H E U T I L I TY O F
CRIME ANALYSIS AND M A P P I N G P R O D U C TS

As noted in the figure, this process is

ongoing. Changes in focus of the
department, capabilities of customers,
the nature of criminal activity, and
information technology are only a few of
the factors that could influence needs
and purposes of crime analysis products.
Thank
you!
PRESENTERS:
Reyes, John
Eduardo Rian,
Kenneth
Samar, Jericho James R.
Santonia, Francis M.
Sayson, Christian Jake
N Velitario, Joshrey S.
Vergara, John Mark S.
Zamora, Earl Vince L.

Lozada, Kristine L.
Rojo, Francheska
S.
Torres, Maria
Theresa Mae O.