Teknik Digital

Instructor : Team Teaching

Course Number : TTI2D3
As Taught In : 4th semester
Level : Undergraduate

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 Course Description

• Students learn logic function and how to simplify it using Boolean Algebra and K-
Map;
• Students able to design combinational logic and how to simplify;
• Students learn binary numeric system and its arithmetic operation;
• Students able to analyze and design a sequential machine;
• Students able to use application tool to design logic circuit.

 Divided into 2 CLOs (Course Learning Objective)

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 Course Objectives

CLO#1 Student have the knowledge to design combinational logic and how to simplify
it
• Understand logic function
• Understand Boolean Algebra
• Understand K-Map
• Understand arithmetic operation using binary system

CLO#2 Student have the knowledge to design finite state machine

• Understand special function combinational logic
• Understand flip-flop as memory
• Understand Finite State Machine

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 Outline

• Understand how to build and map Truth Table into

Karnaugh Map
• Understand the meaning of Don’t Care
• Understand how to simplify Boolean function using
Karnaugh Map

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 Karnaugh maps

• Last time we saw applications of Boolean logic to circuit design.

– The basic Boolean operations are AND, OR and NOT.
– These operations can be combined to form complex expressions, which can also be directly translated into a hardware
circuit.
– Boolean algebra helps us simplify expressions and circuits.
• Today we’ll look at a graphical technique for simplifying an expression into a minimal sum of products (MSP)
form:
– There are a minimal number of product terms in the expression.
– Each term has a minimal number of literals.
• Circuit-wise, this leads to a minimal two-level implementation.

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 Review: Standard forms of expressions

• We can write expressions in many ways, but some ways are more useful than others
• A sum of products (SOP) expression contains:
– Only OR (sum) operations at the “outermost” level
– Each term that is summed must be a product of literals

f(x,y,z) = y’ + x’yz’ + xz
• The advantage is that any sum of products expression can be implemented using a two-level circuit
– literals and their complements at the “0th” level
– AND gates at the first level
– a single OR gate at the second level
• This diagram uses some shorthands…
– NOT gates are implicit
– literals are reused
– this is not okay in LogicWorks!

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 Terminology: Minterms

• A minterm is a special product of literals, in which each input variable appears exactly once.
• A function with n variables has 2n minterms (since each variable can appear complemented or not)
• A three-variable function, such as f(x,y,z), has 23 = 8 minterms:
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz’ x’yz
xy’z’ xy’z xyz’ xyz
• Each minterm is true for exactly one combination of inputs:

Minterm Is true when… Shorthand

x’y’z’ x=0, y=0, z=0 m0
x’y’z x=0, y=0, z=1 m1
x’yz’ x=0, y=1, z=0 m2
x’yz x=0, y=1, z=1 m3
xy’z’ x=1, y=0, z=0 m4
xy’z x=1, y=0, z=1 m5
xyz’ x=1, y=1, z=0 m6
xyz x=1, y=1, z=1 m7
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 Terminology: Sum of minterms form

• Every function can be written as a sum of minterms, which is a special kind of sum of products form
• The sum of minterms form for any function is unique
• If you have a truth table for a function, you can write a sum of minterms expression just by picking out the rows
of the table where the function output is 1.

x y z f(x,y,z) f’(x,y,z) f = x’y’z’ + x’y’z + x’yz’ + x’yz + xyz’

0 0 0 1 0 = m 0 + m1 + m2 + m3 + m6
0 0 1 1 0 = m(0,1,2,3,6)
0 1 0 1 0 f’ = xy’z’ + xy’z +
0 1 1 1 0 xyz
1 0 0 0 1 = m 4 + m5 + m7
1 0 1 0 1 = m(4,5,7)
f’ contains all the minterms not in f
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1

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 Re-arranging the truth table

• A two-variable function has four possible minterms. We can re-arrange these minterms into a
Karnaugh map.
x y minterm Y
0 0 x’y’ 0 1
0 1 x’y 0 x’y’ x’y
1 0 xy’ X
1 xy’ xy
1 1 xy

• Now we can easily see which minterms contain common literals.

– Minterms on the left and right sides contain y’ and y respectively.
– Minterms in the top and bottom rows contain x’ and x respectively.
Y

0 1 Y’ Y
0 x’y’ x’y X’ x’y’ x’y
X
1 xy’ xy X xy’ xy

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 Karnaugh map simplifications

• Imagine a two-variable sum of minterms:

x’y’ + x’y
• Both of these minterms appear in the top row of a Karnaugh map, which means that they both
contain the literal x’.

Y
x’y’ x’y
X xy’ xy

• What happens if you simplify this expression using Boolean algebra?

x’y’ + x’y = x’(y’ + y) [ Distributive ]

= x’  1 [ y + y’ = 1 ]
= x’ [x1=x]

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 More two-variable examples

• Another example expression is x’y + xy.

– Both minterms appear in the right side, where y is uncomplemented.
– Thus, we can reduce x’y + xy to just y.
Y
x’y’ x’y
X xy’ xy

• How about x’y’ + x’y + xy?

– We have x’y’ + x’y in the top row, corresponding to x’.
– There’s also x’y + xy in the right side, corresponding to y.
– This whole expression can be reduced to x’ + y.

Y
x’y’ x’y
X xy’ xy

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 A three-variable Karnaugh map

• For a three-variable expression with inputs x, y, z, the

arrangement of minterms is more tricky:
YZ YZ
00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10
0 x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ 0 m0 m1 m3 m2
X X
1 xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ 1 m4 m5 m7 m6

• Another way to label the K-map (use whichever you like):

Y Y
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ m0 m1 m3 m2
X xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ X m4 m5 m7 m6
Z Z

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 Why the funny ordering?

• With this ordering, any group of 2, 4 or 8 adjacent squares on the map contains common literals that can be
factored out.
Y x’y’z + x’yz
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ = x’z(y’ + y)
X xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ = x’z  1
Z = x’z

• “Adjacency” includes wrapping around the left and right sides:

Y x’y’z’ + xy’z’ + x’yz’ +
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ xyz’
X xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ = z’(x’y’ + xy’ + x’y + xy)
Z
= z’(y’(x’ + x) + y(x’ + x))
= z’(y’+y)
= z’

• We’ll use this property of adjacent squares to do our simplifications.

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 Example K-map simplification

• Let’s consider simplifying f(x,y,z) = xy + y’z + xz.

• First, you should convert the expression into a sum of minterms form, if it’s not already.
– The easiest way to do this is to make a truth table for the function, and then read off the minterms.
– You can either write out the literals or use the minterm shorthand.
• Here is the truth table and sum of minterms for our example:

x y z f(x,y,z)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 f(x,y,z) = x’y’z + xy’z + xyz’ + xyz
1 0 0 0 = m1 + m5 + m6 + m7
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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 Unsimplifying expressions

• You can also convert the expression to a sum of minterms with Boolean algebra.
– Apply the distributive law in reverse to add in missing variables.
– Very few people actually do this, but it’s occasionally useful.

xy + y’z + xz = (xy  1) + (y’z  1) + (xz  1)

= (xy  (z’ + z)) + (y’z  (x’ + x)) + (xz  (y’ + y))
= (xyz’ + xyz) + (x’y’z + xy’z) + (xy’z + xyz)
= xyz’ + xyz + x’y’z + xy’z

• In both cases, we’re actually “unsimplifying” our example expression.

– The resulting expression is larger than the original one!
– But having all the individual minterms makes it easy to combine them together with the K-map.

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 Making the example K-map

• Next up is drawing and filling in the K-map.

– Put 1s in the map for each minterm, and 0s in the other squares.
– You can use either the minterm products or the shorthand to show
you where the 1s and 0s belong.
• Inf(x,y,z)
our example,
= x’y’z + we
xy’zcan write
+ xyz’ f(x,y,z) in
+ xyz two equivalent
f(x,y,z) =m +m +mways.
+m 1 5 6 7

Y Y
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ m0 m1 m3 m2
X xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ X m4 m5 m7 m6
Z Z

Y
• In either case, the resulting
0 1 K-map
0 is shown
0 below.
X 0 1 1 1
Z

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 K-maps from truth tables

• You can also fill in the K-map directly from a truth table.
– The output in row i of the table goes into square mi of the K-map.
– Remember that the rightmost columns of the K-map are “switched.”
x y z f(x,y,z) Y
0 0 0 0 m0 m1 m3 m2
0 0 1 1 X m4 m5 m7 m6
0 1 0 0
Z
0 1 1 0
Y
0 1 0 0
X 0 1 1 1
Z
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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 Grouping the minterms together

• The most difficult step is grouping together all the 1s in the K-map.
– Make rectangles around groups of one, two, four or eight 1s.
– All of the 1s in the map should be included in at least one rectangle.
– Do not include any of the 0s.
Y
0 1 0 0
X 0 1 1 1
Z

• Each group corresponds to one product term. For the simplest result:
– Make as few rectangles as possible, to minimize the number of products in the final expression.
– Make each rectangle as large as possible, to minimize the number of literals in each term.
– It’s all right for rectangles to overlap, if that makes them larger.

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 Reading the MSP from the K-map

• Finally, you can find the MSP.

– Each rectangle corresponds to one product term.
– The product is determined by finding the common literals in that rectangle.

Y
0 1 0 0
X 0 1 1 1
Z

Y
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’
X xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’
Z

• For our example, we find that xy + y’z + xz = y’z + xy. (This is one of the additional algebraic laws from last time.)

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 Practice K-map 1

• Simplify the sum of minterms m1 + m3 + m5 + m6.

Y

X
Z

Y
m0 m1 m3 m2
X m4 m5 m7 m6
Z

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 Solutions for practice K-map 1

• Here is the filled in K-map, with all groups shown.

– The magenta and green groups overlap, which makes each of them as large as
possible.
– Minterm m6 is in a group all by its lonesome.

Y
0 1 1 0
X 0 1 0 1
Z

• The final MSP here is x’z + y’z + xyz’.

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 K-maps can be tricky!

• There may not necessarily be a unique MSP. The K-map below yields two valid and equivalent MSPs, because
there are two possible ways to include minterm m7.
Y
0 1 0 1
X 0 1 1 1
Z

Y Y
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
X 0 1 1 1 X 0 1 1 1
Z Z
y’z + yz’ + xy y’z + yz’ + xz

• Remember that overlapping groups is possible, as shown above.

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 Four-variable K-maps

• We can do four-variable expressions too!

– The minterms in the third and fourth columns, and in the third and fourth rows, are
switched around.
– Again, this ensures that adjacent squares have common literals.

• Grouping minterms is similar to the three-variable case, but:

– You can have rectangular groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 minterms.
– You can wrap around all four sides.
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Four-variable K-maps

Y Y
w’x’y’z’ w’x’y’z w’x’yz w’x’yz’ m0 m1 m3 m2
w’xy’z’ w’xy’z w’xyz w’xyz’ m4 m5 m7 m6
X X
wxy’z’ wxy’z wxyz wxyz’ m12 m13 m15 m14
W W
wx’y’z’ wx’y’z wx’yz wx’yz’ m8 m9 m11 m10
Z Z

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 Example: Simplify m0+m2+m5+m8+m10+m13

• The expression is already a sum of minterms, so here’s the K-map:

Y Y
1 0 0 1 m0 m1 m3 m2
0 1 0 0 m4 m5 m7 m6
X X
0 1 0 0 m12 m13 m15 m14
W W
1 0 0 1 m8 m9 m11 m10
Z Z

• We can make the following groups, resulting in the MSP x’z’ + xy’z.
Y Y
1 0 0 1 w’x’y’z’ w’x’y’z w’x’yz w’x’yz’
0 1 0 0 w’xy’z’ w’xy’z w’xyz w’xyz’
X X
0 1 0 0 wxy’z’ wxy’z wxyz wxyz’
W W
1 0 0 1 wx’y’z’ wx’y’z wx’yz wx’yz’
Z Z

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Five-variable K-maps – f(V,W,X,Y,Z)

V= 0 V= 1
Y Y
m0 m1 m3 m2 m16 m17 m19 m8
m4 m5 m7 m6 m20 m21 m23 m22
X X
m12 m13 m15 m14 m28 m29 m31 m30
W W
m8 m9 m11 m10 m24 m25 m27 m26
Z Z

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Simplify f(V,W,X,Y,Z)=Σm(0,1,4,5,6,11,12,14,16,20,22,28,30,31)

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

V= 0 V= 1

f = XZ’ Σm(4,6,12,14,20,22,28,30)
+ V’W’Y’ Σm(0,1,4,5)
+ W’Y’Z’ Σm(0,4,16,20)
+ VWXY Σm(30,31)
+ V’WX’YZ m11
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PoS Optimization

• Maxterms are grouped to find minimal PoS

expression
yz
00 01 11 10
0 x +y+z x+y+z’ x+y’+z’ x+y’+z
x
1 x’ x’+y+z’ x’+y’+z x’+y’+z
+y+z ’

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PoS Optimization

• F(W,X,Y,Z)= ∏ M(0,1,2,4,5)
yz
00 01 11 10

0 x +y+z x+y+z’ x+y’+z’ x+y’+z

x
1 x’ +y+z x’+y+z’ x’+y’+z’ x’+y’+z

F(W,X,Y,Z)= Y . (X + Z)
yz
00 01 11 10

0 0 0 1 0
x
1 0 0 1 1

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PoS Optimization from SoP

F(W,X,Y,Z)= Σm(0,1,2,5,8,9,10)
= ∏ M(3,4,6,7,11,12,13,14,15)

0 F(W,X,Y,Z)= (W’ + X’)(Y’ + Z’)(X’ + Z)

0 0 0 Or,
0 0 0 0
F(W,X,Y,Z)= X’Y’ + X’Z’ + W’Y’Z
0
Which one is the minimal one?

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SoP Optimization from PoS

F(W,X,Y,Z)= ∏ M(0,2,3,4,5,6)
= Σm(1,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15)

1
F(W,X,Y,Z)= W + XYZ + X’Y’Z
1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

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I don’t care!

• You don’t always need all 2n input combinations in an n-variable function

– If you can guarantee that certain input combinations never occur
– If some outputs aren’t used in the rest of the circuit

• We mark don’t-care outputs in truth tables and K-maps with Xs.

x y z f(x,y,z)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 X
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 X
1 1 1 1

• Within a K-map, each X can be considered as either 0 or 1. You should pick

the interpretation that allows for the most simplification.
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Practice K-map

• Find a MSP for

f(w,x,y,z) = m(0,2,4,5,8,14,15), d(w,x,y,z) = m(7,10,13)

This notation means that input combinations wxyz = 0111, 1010
and 1101
(corresponding to minterms m7, m10 and m13) are unused.

Y
1 0 0 1
1 1 x 0
X
0 x 1 1
W
1 0 0 x
Z

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Solutions for Practice K-map

• Find a MSP for:

f(w,x,y,z) = m(0,2,4,5,8,14,15), d(w,x,y,z) = m(7,10,13)
Y
1 1
1 1 x
X
x 1 1
W
1 x
Z

f(w,x,y,z)= x’z’ + w’xy’ + wxy

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K-map Summary

• K-maps are an alternative to algebra for simplifying expressions

– The result is a MSP/MPS, which leads to a minimal two-level circuit
– It’s easy to handle don’t-care conditions
– K-maps are really only good for manual simplification of small
expressions...
• Things to keep in mind:
– Remember the correct order of minterms/maxterms on the K-map
– When grouping, you can wrap around all sides of the K-map, and your
groups can overlap
– Make as few rectangles as possible, but make each of them as large as
possible. This leads to fewer, but simpler, product terms
– There may be more than one valid solution

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K-map Summary

Langkah2 menyederhanakan fungsi logika dg K-Map:

1. Buat Truth Table
2. Re-arrange Truth Table ke K-Map
3. Buat Group terhadap cell yg aktif
– Group harus sebesar mungkin, krn grup besar == simpler function
– Group harus memiliki jumlah cell 2^n
– Group harus berbentuk kotak
– 1 cell boleh jadi anggota lebih dari 1 Group
4. Cari identifikasi alamat dari setiap Group
5. Tuliskan fungsi sederhana yg merupakan gabungan dari
identifikasi alamat setiap Group

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See You on Next Class

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