Unit IV: ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS

Topic 2: Diodes – Characteristics and Applications

Presentation by
Dr. Rajasi Mandal
Assistant Professor
EEE
SSN College of Engineering
 Session Objectives

 To study about diodes and its I-V characteristics, biasing, and breakdown
 To study about Zener diodes and it’s use as a voltage regulator
 To study about half-wave, full-wave rectifiers, capacitive filters
 Session Outcomes
 Ability to determine the I-V characteristics of a diode
 Ability to differentiate between an ideal and a practical diode
 Ability of understand the mechanisms of diode biasing and breakdown
 Ability to use Zener diode as a voltage regulator
 Ability of apply diodes to construct half-wave and full wave rectifiers
and capacitive filters
 Session Outline
 Diode – A p-n junction
 Depletion Region/Space Charge Region
 Biasing – Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
 I-V Characteristics of a Diode
 Cut-in/Threshold/Knee Voltage, and Breakdown Voltage
 Ideal Diode and Practical Diode
 Breakdown Mechanisms – Avalanche and Zener
 Zener Diode and its behaviour
 Use of Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
 Simple Diode Circuits – Half-wave and Full-wave Rectifiers, Capacitive Filters
 Diode – A p-n junction
• Diode is a semiconductor device that allows only an unidirectional current flow
through it.
• ‘Di’ means two and ode means electrode. Hence, the physical contact of two electrodes is
diode.
• Applications: Rectifier, Clipper, Clamper, etc.

Symbol of Diode

Energy bands of a p-n junction

p-n junction
 How the Depletion Region or Depletion Layer is
formed?
• The electrons move across the junction from the n-side to the p-side, as a result, they leave behind positively
charged ions on the n-side.
• Similarly, the holes migrate across the junction in the opposite direction from p-side to n-side, and leave
negatively charged ions.
• This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the junction is known as diffusion.
• This process continues the number of electrons which have crossed the junction have a large enough electrical
charge to repel or prevent any more carriers from crossing the junction.
• The regions on both sides of the junction become depleted of any free carriers in comparison to the n and p type
materials away from the junction.
• Eventually, a state of equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will occur producing a "potential barrier" zone
around the area of the junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the electrons.
• Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier the regions on both sides of
the junction become depleted of any more free carriers in comparison to the n and p type materials away from
the junction. This area around the junction is now called the Depletion Layer or Depletion Region or Space
Charge Region or Charge Free Region.
• Potential Barrier is a voltage generated due to the ions at the junction. It is 0.7V for Si diode and 0.3V for
Ge diode.
 Biasing
• The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode
is called biasing.
• External voltage is applied to the p-n junction using any of the following two methods:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

The anode is The cathode is
connected to the connected to the
positive terminal positive terminal
of the external of the external
voltage source voltage source
and the cathode is and the anode is
connected to the connected to the
negative terminal negative terminal
of the external of the external
voltage source. voltage source.
 Diode Characteristics
• V is the external voltage provided for biasing. V is independent variable so it will be plotted
on x-axis. I depends on V, i.e. I is a dependent variable, so it will be plotted on y-axis.
• Forward bias: V and I both are positive. The characteristic curve will lie in the 1 st quadrant.
• Reverse bias: V and I both are negative. The characteristic curve will lie in the 3 rd quadrant.

Reverse
saturation
current Cut-in voltage
Breakdown voltage / Knee voltage
/ Threshold
voltage

Ideal diode curve continued..

 continued.. Diode Characteristics Explained
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
•Initially, the barrier potential in the depletion region will oppose •Ideally, a diode should never conduct current under reverse
the flow of current. biased mode. However, there is reverse saturation current (I0) in a
•Depletion width will keep on decreasing with increase in forward very small amount flowing through the diode due to the minority
bias voltage. carriers.
•When the forward bias voltage is greater than the potential •Depletion width increases with increase in reverse bias voltage.
barrier will disappear, and the current will start increasing. •The reverse bias voltage at which the breakdown occurs is called
•The voltage at which the forward biased diode current begins breakdown voltage / reverse breakdown voltage.
to start increasing rapidly is known as the cut-in voltage / •After breakdown, huge current flows through the diode even in
knee voltage / threshold voltage. This voltage is the barrier the reverse biased mode which may damage the diode.
potential voltage, therefore, it is 0.7V for Si diode and 0.3V for •In the reverse bias mode, a diode will offer a very high resistance
Ge diode. (ideally infinite resistance).
•In the forward bias mode, a diode will offer a very small
resistance (ideally zero resistance).
V is in V,
I is in mA,
I0 is in nA to μA
range.
Static resistance or dc resistance of diode,
Rs = V/I
Dynamic resistance or ac resistance of diode,
Rd = ΔV/ΔI
 Diode Equation

For calculations/problems, kT/q can be considered as 26mV.

Effect of Temperature on Diode

Forward Bias: Voltage decreases at the rate of -2.5mV/°C. With increase in temperature,
the forward bias characteristic curve of diode will shift on the left side and vice versa.
Reverse Bias: The reverse saturation current will be doubled per 10°C rise in temperature.
Ideal Diode and Practical Diode
 Diode Ratings
• The rating of a PN junction or a diode is specified by the manufacturer in its datasheet.
• Maximum Forward Current: The maximum value of the forward current that a PN
junction or diode can carry without damaging the device is called its maximum forward
built-up current.
• Peak Inverse Voltage: In semiconductor diodes, peak reverse voltage or peak inverse
voltage is the maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the reverse direction without
breaking down or avalanching. If this voltage is exceeded the diode may be destroyed.
• Maximum Power Rating: The maximum power rating of a diode is the maximum power
that can dissipate across the diode without damaging the diode. Power dissipation is given
by the product of the voltage across the p-n junction and the current through the junction.
• Maximum Average Forward Current: Maximum average forward current is the
maximum average current permissible to flow in the forward direction at a particular
temperature (usually 25°C) without damaging the diode.
• Repetitive Peak Forward Current: Repetitive peak forward current is the maximum
peak current permissible to flow in the forward direction in the form of repetitive pulses at
a particular temperature.
• Maximum Surge Current: Maximum surge current is the maximum current permissible to
flow in the forward direction in the form of non-recurring pulses. This current should not
last more than a few milliseconds.
 Test Your Understanding (Part-A)
1. Define the following terms:
i. Depletion region / Space charge region / Charge free region
ii. Barrier potential
iii. Biasing
iv. Cut-in voltage / Threshold voltage / Knee voltage
v. Breakdown voltage / Reverse breakdown voltage
vi. Peak inverse voltage (PIV)
2. Discuss how the depletion region is created and the barrier potential is formed across a
p-n junction.
3. Draw and explain the V-I characteristics of a diode. Indicate the cut-in voltage, the
reverse saturation current, and the breakdown voltage on the characteristic curve.
4. Draw the characteristic curve for an ideal diode.
5. Write the diode equation and explain the meaning of the symbols.
6. Determine the current I in the given network.
 Zener Diode and Zener Breakdown
• Zener Diode is heavily doped, as a result, the width of the depletion region is narrow.
• Forward bias operation is same as normal diode / Avalanche diode
• In reverse bias, the breakdown occurs as lower voltage due to higher doping concentration.
• The breakdown curve is very sharp for Zener diodes and after breakdown the voltage will
remain constant and a high current will flow through the Zener diode. This voltage is Zener
breakdown voltage. As the Zener diode is capable of holding this constant voltage across it,
it is used as a voltage regulator.

Symbol of Zener Diode

Zener Diode Characteristics

Comparison between Zener Diode and Avalanche Diode
Normal Diode / Avalanche Diode Zener Diode
Symbol

Doping Concentration Lightly doped Heavily doped

Width of Depletion Region Moderate Very thin

Reverse Breakdown Voltage Higher Lower

Reverse-bias Characteristics Less sharp Very sharp

Curve
Temperature Effect on Higher breakdown voltage with increase Lower breakdown voltage with increase
Breakdown Voltage in temperature in temperature
Cost More Less expensive

Size Larger Smaller

Application mode Forward bias Reverse bias

E.g. – Rectifier E.g. – Voltage regulator
 Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
• Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator in reverse bias mode.
• Condition of operation of Zener diode as a voltage regulator: When the output voltage of the
circuit across the load (without the Zener diode), V O is greater than the Zener breakdown
voltage, VZ, then only the Zener diode can work as a voltage regulator.
• The resistance RS is used to limit the current and the resistance R L is the load resistance.
 Test Your Understanding (Part-B)
1. Describe the breakdown mechanism of a Zener diode.
2. What is the essential condition for using a Zener diode as a
voltage regulator.
3. How a Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator?
4. Write down the differences between a normal diode (or an
Avalanche diode) and a Zener diode.
5. Determine the Zener current and the power dissipated across the
Zener diode in the given network.
 Rectifier
• Rectifier is an electronic circuit that is used to convert alternating quantity to direct
quantity.
 Half-wave Rectifier
• The half-wave rectifier circuit is a rectifier that converts only one half of the input
alternating sine wave to direct current wave, and rejects the other half.
• Components: (i) a diode, (ii) a step-down transformer, (iii) a resistive load

Circuit Waveform
 Working of a Half-wave Rectifier
• A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the
step-down transformer. The obtained secondary low
voltage is applied to the diode.
• The diode is forward biased during the positive half
cycle of the AC voltage and reverse biased during the
negative half cycle.
• For the positive half cycle of the AC source voltage, the Circuit configuration for the positive
diode is forward biased and it acts as a closed switch half cycle of the input voltage

(see the diagram).

• During the negative half cycle of the AC source
voltage, the diode is reverse biased, and it acts as an
open switch. Since no current can flow to the load, the
output voltage is equal to zero. the equivalent circuit
becomes as shown in the figure below (see the Circuit configuration for the negative
diagram). half cycle of the input voltage
• As a result, the final output voltage waveform produced
as shown below.
 Full-wave Rectifier
• A full wave rectifier is defined as a rectifier that converts the complete cycle
of alternating current into pulsating DC.
• Unlike half-wave rectifiers that utilize only the half-wave of the input AC cycle,
full wave rectifiers utilize the full cycle. The lower efficiency of the half wave
rectifier can be overcome by the full wave rectifier.
Advantages
• The rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is double that of half wave
rectifiers. The efficiency of half wave rectifiers is 40.6% while the rectification
efficiency of full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.
• The ripple factor in full wave rectifiers is low hence a simple filter is required.
The value of ripple factor in full wave rectifier is 0.482 while in half wave
rectifier it is about 1.21. The DC output signal of the full-wave rectifier is
smoother than the output DC signal of a half-wave rectifier.
• The output voltage and the output power obtained in full wave rectifiers are higher
than that obtained using half wave rectifiers.
Disadvantage
• The only disadvantage of the full wave rectifier is that they need more circuit
elements than the half wave rectifier which makes, making it costlier.
 Full-wave Rectifier (Centre-tapped Transformer)
• Components: (i) two diodes, (ii) a center-tapped step-down transformer, (iii) a resistive
load
 Working of a Full-wave Rectifier (Centre-tapped)
• The input AC supplied to the full wave rectifier is very high.
• The step-down transformer in the rectifier circuit converts the high voltage AC into low
voltage AC.
• The anode of the centre tapped diodes is connected to the transformer’s secondary winding
and connected to the load resistor.
• During the positive half cycle of the alternating current, the top half of the secondary winding
becomes positive while the second half of the secondary winding becomes negative.
• During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased as it is connected to the top of the
secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse biased as it is connected to the bottom of the
secondary winding. Due to this, diode D1 will conduct acting as a short circuit and D2 will
not conduct acting as an open circuit
• During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode D2 is forward
biased because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes negative and the bottom half of
the circuit becomes positive.
• Thus in a full wave rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for both positive and negative half
cycle.
(Diagram provided in the previous slide)
 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier
• The bridge rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a
bridge circuit configuration to convert alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC)
current.
• Components: (i) four diodes, (ii) a step-down transformer, (iii) a resistive load
• Construction: The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The
bridge rectifier circuit is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The
four diodes are connected in a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the
alternating current (AC) into Direct Current (DC).
• Advantage over Full-wave Rectifier with Centre-tapped transformer: The main
advantage of this configuration is the absence of the expensive centre-tapped transformer.
Therefore, the size and cost are reduced.
• (Advantages over a half-wave rectifier has been already discussed in slide no. 20.)
• Disadvantage: When more diodes are used more power loss occurs. In a centre-tapped full-
wave rectifier, only one diode conducts during each half cycle. But in a bridge rectifier, two
diodes connected in series conduct during each half cycle. Hence, the voltage drop is higher
in a bridge rectifier.
 Working of a Full-wave Bridge Rectifier
• The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the
output DC signal is obtained across the load resistor RL connected
between terminals C and D. The four diodes are arranged in such a
way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each half cycle.
D1 and D3 are pairs that conduct electric current during the
positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes D2 and D4 conduct electric
current during a negative half cycle.
• When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal The path of current flow for the
A becomes positive during the positive half cycle while terminal B positive half cycle of the input voltage
becomes negative. This results in diodes D1 and D3 becoming
forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased. (Path of
current flow: see diagram)
• During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while
terminal A becomes negative. This causes diodes D2 and D4 to
become forward biased and diode D1 and D3 to be reverse biased.
• In both the diagrams, the current flow across load resistor R L is the
same during the positive and negative half-cycles. The output DC The path of current flow for the
signal polarity is completely positive. (If the diodes’ direction is negative half cycle of the input voltage
reversed, we get a complete negative DC voltage.)
• Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive
and negative half cycles of the input AC signal.
• The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier have been shown in
the diagram.
 Comparison among Rectifiers
Half-wave Rectifier Full-wave Rectifier (using a Full-wave Bridge Rectifier
centre-tapped transformer)

Circuit

No. of Diodes 1 2 4
Transformer Necessity No Yes No
Waveform

Output Time-period Tin Tin/2 Tin/2

Output Frequency / Ripple Frequency fin 2fin 2fin
Average/Maximum/DC Voltage Vm/π 2Vm/π 2Vm/π
R.m.s. Voltage Vm/2 Vm/√2 Vm/√2
Peak Factor 2 √2 √2
Form Factor 1.57 1.11 1.11
Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48 0.48
Maximum Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) Vm 2Vm Vm
Transformer Utilization Factor (TIF) 0.287 0.693 0.812
Note: Derivations of all the parameters have been provided in a separate pdf.
 Capacitive Filter
• Requirement of Filters in Rectifier Circuits: Rectifier is an electrical device that converts
AC into DC by using one or more p-n junction diodes. Although the output of the rectifier
circuit is unidirectional, it is pulsating (means contains both AC component and DC
component) and cannot meet the needs of most electronic circuits and equipment. Therefore,
after rectification, a filter circuit is needed to convert the pulsating DC voltage into a smooth
DC voltage. Hence, to remove all the AC components filters are used.
• Capacitive Filters: A capacitor is included in the rectifier circuit to act as a filter to reduce
ripple voltage. The important property of the capacitor is that it passes the AC signal but
blocks the DC signal and hence capacitor is used in the rectifier circuit. Hence, capacitor is
connected in parallel with load, to reduce the ripples of the rectified output.
• Working of a Capacitive Filter: (i) If the output voltage is lower than the voltage without
filter, the capacitor gets charged through the diode. (ii) If the output voltage is higher than the
voltage without filter, the capacitor will get discharged through the load resistance, R L.
• Drawbacks: (i) The output ripples depend on the load. (ii) High current will flow through the
diode during capacitor charging.
 Test Your Understanding (Part-C)
1. Draw circuit diagram, waveform, and explain the working of a half-wave rectifier.
2. Derive the values of the following parameters for a half-wave rectifier circuit:
(i) average value or DC value, (ii) r.m.s. value, (iii) form factor, (iv) ripple factor, (v)
rectification efficiency, and (vi) peak inverse voltage.
3. Draw circuit diagram, waveform, and explain the working of a full-wave rectifier
using a center-tapped transformer.
4. Draw circuit diagram, waveform, and explain the working of a full-wave bridge
rectifier.
5. Derive the values of the following parameters for a full-wave rectifier circuit:
(i) average value or DC value, (ii) r.m.s. value, (iii) form factor, (iv) ripple factor, (v)
rectification efficiency, and (vi) peak inverse voltage.
6. What is ripple factor in a rectifier circuit? How these ripples can be reduced?
7. What are the advantages of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave rectifier circuit.
8. Compare the construction and working of half-wave, full-wave, and full-wave bridge
rectifier circuits using a table format.
9. Briefly explain the need of a filter in a rectifier circuit.
10. Discuss the working and use of capacitive filters.
 References
• Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.
Muthusubramanian, S. Salivahanan, The McGraw Hill
Companies
• https://youtube.com
• https://byjus.com
Thank you !