NETWORK LAYER

STORE-AND-FORWARD PACKET SWITCHING

The environment of the network layer protocols.

fig 5-1
 STORE-AND-FORWARD PACKET SWITCHING

The network layer services have been designed with the following
goals :
▶ The services should be independent of the router technology.
▶ The transport layer should be shielded from the number, type and
topology of the routers present.
▶ The network addresses made available to the transport layer
should use a uniform numbering plan, even across LANs and
WANs.
 STORE-AND-FORWARD PACKET SWITCHING

Two classes of service provided by the Network Layer.

▶ Connectionless
▶ Connection-oriented
 ROUTING

If connectionless service is offered, packets are injected into the

subnet individually and routed independently of each other. No
advance setup is needed. In this context, the packets are
frequently called datagrams and the subnet is called datagram
subnet.
ROUTING
Routing within a diagram subnet.
 ROUTING

If connection-oriented is used, a path from the source to the

destination router must be established before any data packets
can be sent. This connection is called a VC (virtual circuit).
 ROUTING

Routing within a virtual-circuit subnet.

 ROUTING

Distinguish between virtual circuit and datagram type of

routing?

In case of virtual circuit, a session is established between source

and destination. At the beginning of the session, route is
decided for all the packets to be sent for that session. In
datagram type of routing, each packet is independently routed.
COMPARISON OF VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT AND
DATAGRAM SUBNETS

5-4
 ROUTING ALGORITHMS
The Optimality Principle
Shortest Path Routing
Flooding
Distance Vector Routing
Link State Routing
Hierarchical Routing
Broadcast Routing
Multicast Routing
Routing for Mobile Hosts
Routing in Ad Hoc Networks
 ROUTING ALGORITHMS
• The main function of the network layer is routing packets from the source machine to
the destination machine. The algorithms that choose the routes and the data structures
that they use are a major area of the network layer design.
• The routing algorithm is that part of the network layer software responsible for
deciding which output line an incoming packet should be terminated on.
• If the subnet uses datagrams internally, this decision must be made a new for arriving
packets since the best route may have changed since last time.
 ROUTING ALGORITHMS
• If the subnet uses virtual circuits internally, routing decision are made only when a
new virtual circuit is being set up.

• Therefore, data packets just follow the previously established route.

• This case is sometimes called session routing because a route remains in force for an
entire user session.
 ROUTING ALGORITHMS
• Routing algorithms can be grouped into two major classes : Non adaptive and
adaptive.
• Non adaptive algorithms do not base their routing decisions on measurements or
estimates of the current traffic and topology. This procedure is sometimes called
static routing.

• Adaptive algorithms, in contrast, change their routing decisions to reflect changes in

the topology, and usually the traffic as well.
 ROUTING ALGORITHMS
List out the advantages and disadvantages of fixed routing.

• The advantages of fixed routing are as follows.

• The routes are always fixed and hence the routing overhead is minimum.
• The routing is dependent on network topology, i.e., static in nature.
• Routing is same for datagram and virtual circuit type of services.

The major disadvantages are:

• Lack of flexibility.
• The system is not robust. In case of link failure or node failure, the system cannot
recover.
• Congestion may occur on a particular route.
 ROUTING ALGORITHMS
What is flooding? Why flooding technique is not commonly used for routing?

Flooding is one type of non-adaptive routing technique where no network information is

used. In case of flooding as each node receives a packet, it is re-transmitted or forwarded
to all the links connected to the node (except the link through which the packet has
arrived).

Flooding is not commonly used for routing for the following reasons:
• Flooding leads to unbounded number of packets
• May lead to congestion in the network
• A number of copies of the same packet is delivered at the destination node
 ROUTING ALGORITHMS
Define Autonomous Systems.

A routing domain generally is considered a portion of an internet under common

administrative authority that is regulated by a particular set of administrative guidelines.
Routing domains are also called autonomous systems.
 ROUTING ALGORITHMS
Differentiate between Link State and Distance Vector routing algorithms.
Link-state algorithms (also known as shortest path first algorithms) flood routing
information to all nodes in the internetwork. Each router, however, sends only the portion
of the routing table that describes the state of its own links. In link-state algorithms, each
router builds a picture of the entire network in its routing tables.

Distance vector algorithms (also known as Bellman-Ford algorithms) call for each router
to send all or some portion of its routing table, but only to its neighbors. In essence, link-
state algorithms send small updates everywhere, while distance vector algorithms send
larger updates only to neighboring routers. Distance vector algorithms know only about
their neighbors.
 SHORTEST PATH ROUTING

The first 5 steps used in computing the shortest path from A to D.

The arrows indicate the working node.
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
• Distance vector routing algorithms operate by having each router maintain a table (i.e. a
vector ) giving the best known distance to each destination and which line to use to
there. These tables are updated by exchanging information with the neighbors.
• The distance vector routing algorithm is sometimes called by other names, most
commonly the distribute Bellman-Ford routing algorithm and the Ford-Fulkerson
algorithm.
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
• In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table indexed by, and
containing one entry for, each router in the subnet. This entry contains two parts : the
proffered outgoing line to use for that destination and an estimate of the time or
distance to that destination.
• The metric used might be number of hops, time delay in milliseconds, total number of
packets queued along the path, or something similar.``
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
Distance-Vector Routing

• Each node constructs a one-dimensional array containing the "distances"(costs) to all

other nodes and distributes that vector to its immediate neighbors.
• The starting assumption for distance-vector routing is that each node knows the cost of
the link to each of its directly connected neighbors.
• A link that is down is assigned an infinite cost.
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
Example.
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
Information Distance to Reach Node
Stored at Node A B C D E F G

A 0 1 1 1 1
� �
B 1 0 1
� � � �
C 1 1 0 1
� � �
D 1 0 1
� � � �
E 1 0
� � � � �
F 1 0 1
� � � �
G 1 1 0
�stored at�
Table : Initial distances �
each node(global view). �
We can represent each node's knowledge about the distances to all other nodes as a table
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
Note that each node only knows the information in one row of the table.

1. Every node sends a message to its directly connected neighbors containing its
personal list of distance. ( for example, A sends its information to its
neighbors B,C,E, and F. )

2. If any of the recipients of the information from A find that A is advertising a path
shorter than the one they currently know about, they update their list to give the new
path length and note that they should send packets for that destination through A.
( node Blearns from A that node E can be reached at a cost of 1; B also knows it can
reach A at a cost of 1, so it adds these to get the cost of reaching E by means
of A. B records that it can reach E at a cost of 2 by going through A.)
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
3. After every node has exchanged a few updates with its directly connected neighbors, all
nodes will know the least-cost path to all the other nodes.
4. In addition to updating their list of distances when they receive updates, the nodes need
to keep track of which node told them about the path that they used to calculate the
cost, so that they can create their forwarding table. ( for example, B knows that it was
A who said " I can reach E in one hop" and so B puts an entry in its table that says "
To reach E, use the link to A.)
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
Information Distance to Reach Node
Stored at Node A B C D E F G

A 0 1 1 2 1 1 2
B 1 0 1 2 2 2 3
C 1 1 0 1 2 2 2
D
2
2 1 0 3 2 1
E 1 2 2 3 0 2 3
F 1 2 2 2 2 0 1
G
2
3 2 1 3 1 0
Table: final distances stored at each node ( global view).
 DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING

Destination Cost NextHop

A 1 A
C 1 C
D 2 C
E 2 A
F 2 A
G 3 A

Table : shows the complete routing table maintained at node B for the network
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING

(a) A subnet. (b) Input from A, I, H, K, and the new routing table for J.
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING

The count-to-infinity problem.

 LINK STATE ROUTING

Link State Routing

▶ Every node knows how to reach its directly connected

neighbors, and if we make sure that the totality of this
knowledge is disseminated to every node, then every node will
have enough knowledge of the network to determine correct
routes to any destination.
LINK STATE ROUTING

Reliable Flooding is the process of making sure that all the nodes
participating in the routing protocol get a copy of the link-state
information from all the other nodes. As the term " flooding"
suggests, the basic idea is for a node to send its link-state
information out on all of its directly connected links, with each
node that receives this information forwarding it out on all of its
link. This process continues until the information has reached
all the nodes in the network.
LINK STATE ROUTING

▶ Link State Packet (LSP) contains the following information:

▶ The ID of the node that created the LSP;
▶ A list of directly connected neighbors of that node, with the cost of the link to
each one;
▶ A sequence number;
▶ A time to live (TTL) for this packet.
LINK STATE ROUTING

▶ Flooding works in the following way. When a node X receives a copy of an

LSP that originated at some other node Y, it checks to see if it has already
stored a copy of an LSP from Y. If not, it stores the LSP. If it already has a
copy, it compares the sequence numbers; if the new LSP has a larger
sequence number, it is assumed to be the more recent, and that LSP is stored,
replacing the old one. The new LSP is then forwarded on to all neighbors of
X except the neighbor from which the LSP was just received.
LINK STATE ROUTING

Each router must do the following:

1. Discover its neighbors, learn their network
address.
2. Measure the delay or cost to each of its
neighbors.
3. Construct a packet telling all it has just learned.
4. Send this packet to all other routers.
5. Compute the shortest path to every other router.
 LEARNING ABOUT THE NEIGHBORS

Learn about neighbours

 MEASURING LINE COST

A subnet in which the East and West parts are connected by two lines.
BUILDING LINK STATE PACKETS

(a) A subnet. (b) The link state packets for this subnet.
 DISTRIBUTING THE LINK STATE
PACKETS

The packet buffer for router B in the previous slide

HIERARCHICAL ROUTING

When hierarchical routing is used, the routers are divided into what
we call regions, with each router knowing all the details about
how to route packets to destinations with in own region, but
knowing nothing about the internal structure of other regions.

When different networks are interconnected, it is natural to regard

each one as a separate region in order to free the routers in one
network from having to know the topological structure of other
ones.
HIERARCHICAL ROUTING

For huge networks, a two-level hierarchy may be insufficient, it may

be necessary to group the regions into clusters, the clusters into
zones, the zones into groups, and so on.
HIERARCHICAL ROUTING

Hierarchical routing.
BROADCAST ROUTING

Reverse path forwarding. (a) A subnet. (b) a Sink tree. (c) The tree built by reverse
path forwarding.
BROADCAST ROUTING
•In some applications, hosts need to send messages to many or all other hosts.
•For example, a service distributing weather reports, stock market updates or live radio
programs.
•Sending a packet to all destinations simultaneously is called broadcasting.
•Various methods have been proposed for doing it :
BROADCAST ROUTING
•One broadcasting method that requires no special features from the subnet is for the
source to simply send a distinct packet to each destinations.
•Not only is the method wasteful of bandwidth, but it also requires the source to have a
complete list of all destinations.
•In practice this may be the only possibility, but it is the least desirable of the methods.
BROADCAST ROUTING
•Flooding is another method.
•Although Flooding is ill-suited for ordinary point-to-point communication, for
broadcasting it might rate serious consideration.
•The problem with flooding as a broadcast technique is the same problem it has a point-
to-point routing algorithms: it generates too many packets and consumes too much
bandwidth.
BROADCAST ROUTING
•A third algorithm is multi destination routing.
•If this method is used, each packet contains either a list of destinations or a bit map
indicating the desired destinations.
•When a packet arrives at a router, the router checks all the destinations to determine the
set of output lines what will be needed.
•The router regenerates a new copy of the packet for each output line to be used and
includes in each packet only those destinations that are to use the line.
BROADCAST ROUTING
•Fourth broadcast algorithm makes explicit use of the sink tree for the router initiating the
broadcast- or any other convenient spanning tree for that matter.
•A spanning subtree is a subset of the subnet that includes all the routers but contains no
loops.
•If each router knows which of its lines belong to the spanning tree lines except the one
copy of an incoming broadcast packet onto all the spanning tree lines except the one is
arrived on.
•This method makes excellent use of bandwidth, generating the absolute minimum
number of packets necessary to do the job.
BROADCAST ROUTING
•Our last broadcast algorithm is an attempt to approximate the behavior of the previous
one.
•The idea is called, reverse path forwarding, is remarkably simple once it has been
pointed out..
•When a broadcast packet arrives at a router, the router checks to see if the packet arrived
on the line that is normally used for sending broadcast packets to the source of the
broadcast.
•If so, there is an excellent chance that the broadcast packet itself followed the best route
from the router and is therefore the first copy to arrive the router.
•This being the case, the router forwards copies of it onto all lines except the one it
arrived on.
MULTICAST ROUTING

(a) A network. (b) A spanning tree for the leftmost router.

(c) A multicast tree for group 1. (d) A multicast tree for group 2.
 ROUTING FOR MOBILE HOSTS

A WAN to which LANs, MANs, and wireless cells are attached.

ROUTING FOR MOBILE HOSTS (2)

Packet routing for mobile users.

 CONCLUSION

▶ Comparison of Virtual-Circuit and Datagram

Subnets ids of mail and phone systems
▶ Routing algorithms can be classified as satic and
dynamic
▶ Link sate and distance vector routing are
commonly used in dynamic
▶ Routing in mobile is used for AD-HOC networks
Congestion
Control
CONGESTION
▶ An important issue in a packet-switched network is
congestion.

▶ Congestion in a network may occur if the load on the

network – the number of packets sent to the network – is
greater than the capacity of the network – the number of
packets a network can handle.

▶ Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and

techniques to control the congestion and keep the load
below the capacity.
 CONGESTION CONTROL

▶ Congestion control refers to techniques and mechanisms that

can either prevent congestion, before it happens, or remove
congestion, after it has happened.
▶ In general, we can divide congestion control mechanisms into
two broad categories :
▶ Open-Loop Congestion Control
▶ Closed-Loop Control
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Open-Loop Congestion Control

▶ Policies are applied to prevent congestion before it happens.

▶ In these mechanism, congestion control is handled by either the

source or destination.
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Open-Loop Congestion Control

Different policies that can prevent congestion

1. Retransmission policy
2. Window Policy
3. Acknowledgment Policy
4. Discarding Policy
5. Admission Policy
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Retransmission Policy

▶ Retransmission is sometime unavoidable.

▶ If the sender feels that a sent packet is lost or corrupted, the
packet needs to be transmitted.
▶ Retransmission may increase congestion in the network.
 CONGESTION CONTROL
Window Policy

▶ This type of window at the sender may also effect congestion.

▶ The Selective repeat window is better than the Go-Back-N
window for congestion control.
▶ In the Go-Back-N window, when the timer for a packet times
out, several packets may be resent – This duplication may make
the congestion.
▶ In Selective Repeat window, tries to send the specific packets
that have been lost or damaged.
 CONGESTION CONTROL
Acknowledgment Policy

▶ The ACK policy imposed by the receiver may also affect

congestion.
▶ If the receiver doe not ACK every packet it receives, it may
slow down the sender and help prevent congestion.
▶ Several approaches are used in this case.
▶ A receiver may send an ACK only if it has a packet to be sent or
a special timer expires.
▶ A receiver may decide to ACK only N packet at a time.
▶ Sending fewer ACK means imposing less load on network.
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Discarding Policy

▶ A good discarding policy by the routers may prevent congestion

and at the same time may not hard the integrity of the
transmission.
▶ For example, in audio transmission, if the policy is to discard
less sensitive packets when congestion is likely to happen, the
quality of sound is still preserved and congestion is prevented.
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Admission Policy

▶ An admission policy, which is a quality-of-service mechanism,

can also prevent congestion in virtual circuit networks.
▶ Switches in a flow first check the resource requirement of a
flow before admitting it to the network.
▶ A router can deny establishing a virtual circuit connection if
there is congestion in the network or if there is a possibility of
future congestion.
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Closed-Loop Congestion Control

▶ This mechanism try to alleviate congestion after it happens.

▶ Several mechanism have been used by different protocols:

• Backpressure
• Choke Packet
• Implicit Signaling
• Explicit Signaling
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Backpressure

▶ The technique of backpressure refers to a congestion control

mechanism in which a congested node stops receiving data from
the immediate upstream node.
▶ It is a node-to-node congestion control that starts with a node and
propagates, in the opposite direction of data flow to the source.
▶ It can be applied only to virtual circuit networks, in which each
node knows the upstream node from which a flow of data is
coming.
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Choke Packet

▶ It is a packet sent by a node to the source to inform it of congestion.

▶ Choke packet scheme is a close loop mechanism where each link is
monitored to examine how much utilization is taking place.
▶ If the utilization goes beyond a certain threshold limit, the link goes
to a warning and a special packet, called choke packet is sent to
the source.
▶ On receiving the choke packet, the source reduced the traffic in
order to avoid congestion.
 CONGESTION CONTROL

The congestion control in the choke packet scheme can be monitored in the
following manner : -
▶ Each link is monitored to estimate the level of utilization.
▶ If the utilization crosses a certain threshold limit, the link goes to a warning
state and a choke packet is send to the source.
▶ On receiving the choke packet, the source reduces the transmitting limit to a
certain level (say, by 50%).
▶ If still warning state persists, more choke packets are sent further reducing
the traffic. This continues until the link recovers from the warning state.
▶ If no further choke packet is received by the source within a time interval,
the traffic is increased gradually so that the system doesn’t go to congestion
state again.
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Implicit Signaling

▶ There is no communication between the congested node and the source.

▶ The source guesses that there is a congestion somewhere in the network
from other symptoms.
▶ For example, when a source sends a several packets and there is no ACK
for a while, one assumption is that the network is congested.
▶ The delay in receiving an ACK is interpreted as congestion in the
network.
▶ The source should slow down.
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Explicit Signaling

▶ The node that experiences congestion can explicitly send a signal to the
source or destination.
▶ Explicit signaling is differ than choke packet –

▶ In a choke packet method, a separate packet is used for this purpose

▶ In a explicit signaling, the signal is included in the packets that carry

data.
 CONGESTION CONTROL

Explicit Signaling
▶ Explicit Signaling can occur in either the forward or backward direction :-

Backward Signaling – A bit can be set in a packet moving in the direction

opposite to the congestion. This bit can warn the source that there is
congestion and that it needs to slow down to avoid the discarding of packets.

Forward Signaling – A bit can be set in a packet moving in the direction of the
congestion. This bit can warn the destination that there is congestion.
Receiver can use ACK policies , slow down the ACK, to alleviate the
congestion.
CONGESTION PREVENTION
POLICIES

Policies that affect congestion.

5-26
Quality Of
Service
REQUIREMENTS
How stringent the quality-of-service requirements are.

5-30
 THE LEAKY BUCKET ALGORITHM

(a) A leaky bucket with water. (b) a leaky bucket with packets.
 THE LEAKY BUCKET ALGORITHM
The following steps are performed:
▶ When the host has to send a packet, the packet is thrown into the
bucket.
▶ The bucket leaks at a constant rate, meaning the network
interface transmits packets at a constant rate.
▶ Bursty traffic is converted to a uniform traffic by the leaky
bucket.
▶ In practice the bucket is a finite queue that outputs at a finite rate.
 THE LEAKY BUCKET ALGORITHM

▶ This arrangement can be simulated in the operating system or can

be built into the hardware.
▶ Implementation of this algorithm is easy and consists of a finite
queue.
▶ Whenever a packet arrives, if there is room in the queue it is
queued up and if there is no room then the packet is discarded.
THE TOKEN BUCKET ALGORITHM

5-34

(a) Before. (b) After.

 THE TOKEN BUCKET ALGORITHM

▶ The leaky bucket algorithm described above, enforces a rigid

pattern at the output stream, irrespective of the pattern of the input.

▶ For many applications it is better to allow the output to speed up

somewhat when a larger burst arrives than to loose the data.

▶ Token Bucket algorithm provides such a solution. In this algorithm

leaky bucket holds token, generated at regular intervals.
 THE TOKEN BUCKET ALGORITHM

Main steps of this algorithm can be described as follows:

▶ In regular intervals tokens are thrown into the bucket.

▶ The bucket has a maximum capacity.

▶ If there is a ready packet, a token is removed from the bucket, and

the packet is send.

▶ If there is no token in the bucket, the packet cannot be send.

 THE TOKEN BUCKET ALGORITHM

▶ The token bucket algorithm is less restrictive than the leaky bucket
algorithm, in a sense that it allows bursty traffic.

▶ However, the limit of burst is restricted by the number of tokens

available in the bucket at a particular instant of time.

▶ The implementation of basic token bucket algorithm is simple; a

variable is used just to count the tokens.

▶ This counter is incremented every t seconds and is decremented

whenever a packet is sent.
ADMISSION CONTROL

An example of flow specification.

5-34
PACKET SCHEDULING

(a) A router with five packets queued for line O.

(b) Finishing times for the five packets.
 RSVP-THE RESERVATION PROTOCOL

(a) A network, (b) The multicast spanning tree for host 1.

(c) The multicast spanning tree for host 2.
 RSVP-THE RESERVATION
PROTOCOL

(a) Host 3 requests a channel to host 1. (b) Host 3 then requests a second channel, to
host 2. (c) Host 5 requests a channel to host 1.
EXPEDITED FORWARDING

Expedited packets experience a traffic-free network.

 ASSURED FORWARDING

A possible implementation of the data flow for assured forwarding.

Internetworking
HOW NETWORKS DIFFER

5-43

Some of the many ways networks can differ.

HOW NETWORKS CAN BE
CONNECTED

(a) Two Ethernets connected by a switch.

(b) Two Ethernets connected by routers.
TUNNELING

Tunneling a packet from Paris to London.

TUNNELING

Tunneling a car from France to England.

INTERNETWORK ROUTING

(a) An internetwork. (b) A graph of the internetwork.

FRAGMENTATION

(a) Transparent fragmentation. (b) Nontransparent fragmentation.

FRAGMENTATION
 Internetworks

Need For Network

Layer
Internet As A Packet-Switched Network

Internet As A Connectionless Network

Internetwork
Links in an internetwork
Network layer in an internetwork
Network layer at the source
Network layer at a router
Addressing
 IP Addressing

An IP address is a 32-bit address.

 Cont …

Note:

The IP addresses are unique

and universal.
Cont …
 Cont …

Note:

The binary, decimal, and hexadecimal

number systems are reviewed in
Appendix B.
 Cont …
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number (see Appendix
B) and add dots for separation:
a. 129.11.11.239
b. 249.155.251.15
 Cont …
Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation.
a. 111.56.45.78
b. 75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent (see Appendix B):

a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110

b. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110
 Cont …

Note:

In classful addressing, the address

space is divided into five classes: A, B,
C, D, and E.
Cont …
Cont …
 Cont …
Find the class of each address:
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
See the procedure in Figure 19.11.

a. The first bit is 0; this is a class A address.

b. The first 4 bits are 1s; this is a class E address.
Finding the class in decimal notation
 Cont …
Find the class of each address:
a. 227.12.14.87
b. 252.5.15.111
c. 134.11.78.56

Solution
a. The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D.
b. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E.
c. The first byte is 134 (between 128 and 191); the class is B.
Netid and hostid
Blocks in class A
 Cont …

Note:

Millions of class A addresses are

wasted.
Blocks in class B
 Cont …

Note:

Many class B addresses are wasted.

 Cont …

Note:

The number of addresses in class C is

smaller than the needs of most
organizations.
Blocks in class C
 Cont …

Note:

In classful addressing, the network

address is the one that is assigned to
the organization.
 Cont …
Given the address 23.56.7.91, find the network address.

Solution
The class is A. Only the first byte defines the netid. We can find the
network address by replacing the hostid bytes (56.7.91) with 0s. Therefore,
the network address is 23.0.0.0.
 Cont …
Given the address 132.6.17.85, find the network address.

Solution
The class is B. The first 2 bytes defines the netid. We can find the network
address by replacing the hostid bytes (17.85) with 0s. Therefore, the
network address is 132.6.0.0.
 Cont …
Given the network address 17.0.0.0, find the class.

Solution
The class is A because the netid is only 1 byte.
 Cont …

Note:

A network address is different from a

netid. A network address has both
netid and hostid,
with 0s for the hostid.
Sample internet
Addresses in a network with and without
subnetting
 CONCLUSION

▶ The IP address is 32 bits

▶ There are 5 IP addresses. Classes A, B
and C differ in number of hosts. Class D
for multicasting, Class E is reserved.
▶ Subnetting divides one large network
into several smaller ones.
 Topic

Network Layer
Protocols:
ARP, IPv4, ICMPv4,
IPv6, and ICMPv6
Protocols at network layer
 AR
P
• Mappin
g
• Packet
Format
• Encapsulatio
n
• Operatio
n
ARP operation
ARP packet
Encapsulation of ARP packet
Four cases using ARP
 Cont …

Note:

An ARP request is broadcast; an ARP

reply is unicast.
 IP

• Datagram

• Fragmentatio
n
IP datagram
 IP datagram

A brief description of each of the fields are given below:

VER (4 bits): Version of the IP protocol in use (typically 4).

HLEN (4 bits): Length of the header, expressed as the number of 32-bit words. Minimum
size is 5, and maximum 15.

Total Length (16 bits): Length in bytes of the datagram, including headers. Maximum
datagram size is (216) 65536 bytes.

Service Type (8 bits): Allows packet to be assigned a priority. Router can use this field to
route packets. Not universally used.
 IP datagram
Time to Live (8 bits): Prevents a packet from traveling forever in a loop. Senders sets a
value, that is decremented at each hop. If it reaches zero, packet is discarded.

• Protocol: Defines the higher level protocol that uses the service of the IP layer

• Source IP address (32 bits): Internet address of the sender.

• Destination IP address (32 bits): Internet address of the destination.

• Identification, Flags, Fragment Offset: Used for handling fragmentation.
• Options (variable width): Can be used to provide more functionality to the IP datagram
 IP datagram
Header Checksum (16 bits):

o Covers only the IP header.

Steps:

o Header treated as a sequence of 16-bit integers

o The integers are all added using ones complement arithmetic
o Ones complement of the final sum is taken as the checksum
o Datagram is discarded in case of mismatch in checksum values
 Cont …

Note:

The total length field defines the total

length of the datagram including the
header.
Multiplexing
Example of checksum calculation
MTU
 MTU
•Each network imposes a limit on maximum size, known as maximum transfer unit
(MTU) of a packet because of various reasons.
•One approach is to prevent the problem to occur in the first place, i.e. send packets
smaller than the MTU.
•Second approach is to deal with the problem using fragmentation. When a gateway
connects two networks that have different maximum and or minimum packet sizes, it is
necessary to allow the gateway to break packets up into fragments, sending each one as
an internet packet.
•The technique is known as fragmentation.
 MTU
The following fields of an IP datagram are related to fragmentation:

•Identification: A16-bit field identifies a datagram originating from the source host.

• Flags: There are 3 bits, the first bit is reserved, the second bit is do not fragment bit,
and the last bit is more fragment bit.

• Fragmentation offset: This 13-bit field shows the relative position of the segment with
respect to the complete datagram measured in units of 8 bytes.
 Fragmentation example
Fragmentation example, where a packet is fragmented into packets of 1600 bytes. So, the
offset of the second fragmented packet is 1600/8 = 200 and the offset of the third
fragmented packet is 400 and so on.
 ICM
P
▶Introduction
▶ Messages
▶ Debugging Tools
▶ ICMP Package
 ICM
P
▶To make efficient use of the network resources, IP was designed
to provide unreliable and connectionless best-effort datagram
delivery service. As a consequence, IP has no error-control
mechanism and also lacks mechanism for host and management
queries. A companion protocol known as Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP), has been designed to compensate
these two deficiencies.
 ICM
P

▶Position of ICMP in the network layer

 ICM
P

▶ICMP encapsulation
 ICM
P

ICMP
▶ICMP Messages
messages are divided into error-reporting messages and query
messages. The error-reporting messages report problems that a router or a
host (destination) may encounter. The query messages get specific
information from a router or another host.
 ICM
P

▶ICMP Messages
 ICM
P
ICMP messages
 ICM
P
Message Format

An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a variable-size data

section. Although the general format of the header is different for each
message type, the first 4 bytes are common to all.
 ICMP

Message Format
 ICM
P
ERROR REPORTING

IP, as an unreliable protocol, is not concerned with error checking and error control.
ICMP was designed, in part, to compensate for this shortcoming. ICMP does not
correct errors, it simply reports them.

ICMP always reports error messages to the original source.

ICM
P
 ICM
P
Contents of data field for the error messages
 ICM
P
Destination-unreachable format
 ICM
P
Destination-unreachable format

Destination-unreachable messages with codes 2 or 3 can be

created only by the destination host.

Other destination-unreachable messages can be created only by

routers.
 ICM
P
Source-quench format
 ICM
P
Source-quench format

A source-quench message informs the source that a datagram has

been discarded due to congestion in a router or the destination
host.

The source must slow down the sending of datagrams until the
congestion is relieved.
 ICM
P
Source-quench format

One source-quench message is sent for each datagram that is

discarded due to congestion.
 ICM
P
Time-exceeded message

Whenever a router decrements a datagram with a time-to-live value

to zero, it discards the datagram and sends a time-exceeded
message to the original source.
 ICM
P
Time-exceeded message

When the final destination does not receive all of the fragments in a
set time, it discards the received fragments and sends a time-
exceeded message to the original source.
 ICM
P
Time-exceeded message

code 0 is used only by routers to show that the value of the time-to-
live field is zero. Code 1 is used only by the destination host to
show that not all of the fragments have arrived within a set time.
 ICM
P
Time-exceeded message format
 ICM
P
Time-exceeded message format
 ICM
P
Parameter-problem

A parameter-problem message can be created by a router or the

destination host.
 ICM
P
Parameter-problem message format
 ICM
P
Redirection concept
 ICM
P
Redirection concept

A host usually starts with a small routing table that is gradually

augmented and updated. One of the tools to accomplish this is the
redirection message.
 ICM
P
Redirection message format
 ICM
P
Redirection message

A redirection message is sent from a router to a host on the same

local network.
 ICM
P
QUERY Messages

ICMP can also diagnose some network problems through the query
messages, a group of four different pairs of messages. In this type of
ICMP message, a node sends a message that is answered in a
specific format by the destination node.
ICM
P
 ICM
P

An echo-request message can be sent by a host or router. An echo-

reply message is sent by the host or router which receives an
echo-request message.
 ICM
P

Echo-request and echo-reply messages can be used by network

managers to check the operation of the IP protocol.
 ICM
P

Echo-request and echo-reply messages can test the reachability of

a host. This is usually done by invoking the ping command.
 ICM
P
Echo-request and echo-reply messages
 ICM
P

Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply

 ICM
P

Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply messages can be used to

calculate the round-trip time between a source and a destination
machine even if their clocks are not synchronized.
 ICM
P

The timestamp-request and timestamp-reply messages can be

used to synchronize two clocks in two machines if the exact one-
way time duration is known.
 ICM
P
Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply message format
 ICM
P
Mask-request and mask-reply message format
 ICM
P
Router-solicitation message format
 ICM
P
Router-advertisement message format
 ICM
P
Debugging Tools

Two tools that use ICMP for debugging:

1. ping
2. traceroute.
 ICM
P
Example

$ ping fhda.edu

PING fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 56 (84) bytes of data.

64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=0 ttl=62 time=1.91 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=1 ttl=62 time=2.04 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=2 ttl=62 time=1.90 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=3 ttl=62 time=1.97 ms
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=4 ttl=62 time=1.93 ms
 ICM
P
The traceroute program operation
 ICM
P
Example

We use the traceroute program to find the route from the computer
voyager.deanza.edu to the server fhda.edu. The following shows the result:

$ traceroute fhda.edu

traceroute to fhda.edu (153.18.8.1), 30 hops max, 38 byte packets

1 Dcore.fhda.edu (153.18.31.254) 0.995 ms 0.899 ms 0.878 ms
2 Dbackup.fhda.edu (153.18.251.4) 1.039 ms 1.064 ms 1.083 ms
3 tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 1.797 ms 1.642 ms 1.757 ms
 ICM
P
ICMP Package

To give an idea of how ICMP can handle the sending and receiving of ICMP
messages, an ICMP package made of two modules: an input module and an output
module.
 ICMP
ICMP Package
IPv6 address
Abbreviated address
Abbreviated address with consecutive zeros
CIDR address
Format of an IPv6 datagram
 IPV6
PROTOCOL
Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 packet header
IPV6
PROTOCOL
Tunneling
Header translation