Biochemistry of Metabolism

Glycogen Metabolism
 CH 2 OH CH 2 OH
H O O
glycogen
H H H
H H
OH H OH H 1
O
OH
O
H OH H OH

CH 2 OH CH 2 OH 6 CH 2 CH 2 OH CH 2 OH
H O H H O H H 5 O H H O H H O H
H H H H H
OH H OH H OH H 1 4 OH H OH H
4 O O
O O OH
OH 2
3
H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH

Glycogen is a polymer of glucose residues linked by

 (14) glycosidic bonds, mainly
 (16) glycosidic bonds, at branch points.
Glycogen chains & branches are longer than shown.
Glucose is stored as glycogen predominantly in liver and
muscle cells.
 O

CH 2OH HN

H O H
Glycogen H O N
OH H O O
synthesis P O P O CH 2
OH O
O
 
H OH O O H H
H H
UDP-glucose OH OH

Uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-glucose) is the

immediate precursor for glycogen synthesis.
As glucose residues are added to glycogen, UDP-glucose
is the substrate and UDP is released as a reaction product.
Nucleotide diphosphate sugars are precursors also for
synthesis of other complex carbohydrates, including
oligosaccharide chains of glycoproteins, etc.
 O
UDP-Glucose Pyrophosphorylase
CH2OH HN

H O H
H O N
OH H O O O O

OH O P O + 
O P O P O P O CH2
O
H OH O O O O H H

glucose-1-phosphate UTP H
OH OH
H

PPi O

CH2OH HN

H O H
H O N
OH H O O

OH O P O P O CH2
O
H OH O O H H
H H
UDP-glucose OH OH
UDP-glucose is formed from glucose-1-phosphate:
 glucose-1-phosphate + UTP  UDP-glucose + PPi
 PPi + H2O  2 Pi
Overall:
 glucose-1-phosphate + UTP  UDP-glucose + 2 Pi
Spontaneous hydrolysis of the ~P bond in PPi (P~P)
drives the overall reaction.
Cleavage of PPi is the only energy cost for glycogen
synthesis (one ~P bond per glucose residue).
Glycogenin initiates glycogen synthesis.
Glycogenin is an enzyme that catalyzes attachment of a
glucose molecule to one of its own tyrosine residues.
Glycogenin is a dimer, and evidence indicates that the
2 copies of the enzyme glucosylate one another.

Tyr active site

active site Tyr

Glycogenin dimer
 6CH OH
2
UDP-glucose tyrosine residue
H
5 O H of Glycogenin
H O O C O
4 OH H 1
OH O P O P O Uridine HO C CH
3 2 H2
H OH O O NH

6CH OH
2
O-linked 5 O
glucose H H
H
C O
residue 4 OH H 1
OH 3
O C CH +UDP
2 H2
H OH NH

CH2OH CH2OH
A glycosidic
H O bondH is formed
H O between
H the anomeric C1 of
the O
glucose
H
H H
moiety derived
H
OH
from
H
UDP-glucose and the
C O

hydroxyl
OH oxygenO of a tyrosine side-chain
O of Glycogenin.
C CH
H2
UDP
H
is released
OH
as a product.
H OH NH
 6CH OH
2
O-linked 5 O
glucose H H
H
C O
residue 4 OH H 1
OH 3
O C CH +UDP
2 H2
H OH NH
UDP-glucose
CH2OH CH2OH

H O H H O H
H H C O
OH H OH H
OH O O C CH +UDP
H2
H OH (14) H OH NH
linkage

Glycogenin then catalyzes glucosylation at C4 of the attached

glucose (UDP-glucose again the donor), to yield an O-linked
disaccharide with (14) glycosidic linkage.
This is repeated until a short linear glucose polymer with
(14) glycosidic linkages is built up on Glycogenin.
Glycogen Synthase then catalyzes elongation of
glycogen chains initiated by Glycogenin.

Question: Where would you expect to find

Glycogenin within a cell?

Answer: Most of the Glycogenin is found associated

with glycogen particles (branched glycogen chains)
in the cytoplasm.
Glycogen Synthase catalyzes transfer of the glucose
moiety of UDP-glucose to the hydroxyl at C4 of the
terminal residue of a glycogen chain to form an
(1 4) glycosidic linkage:
glycogen(n residues) + UDP-glucose 
glycogen(n +1 residues) + UDP

A branching enzyme transfers a segment from the end of

a glycogen chain to the C6 hydroxyl of a glucose residue
of glycogen to yield a branch with an (16) linkage.
 Glycogen Synthesis
UTP UDP + 2 P i
glycogen(n) + glucose-1-P glycogen(n + 1)

Glycogen Phosphorylase Pi

Both synthesis & breakdown of glycogen are spontaneous.

If both pathways were active simultaneously in a cell,
there would be a "futile cycle" with cleavage of one ~P
bond per cycle (in forming UDP-glucose).
To prevent such a futile cycle, Glycogen Synthase and
Glycogen Phosphorylase are reciprocally regulated, by
allosteric effectors and by phosphorylation.
 CH 2 OH
H O H
H
OH H
OPO 3 2
Glycogen catabolism OH
H OH
(breakdown): glucose-1-phosphate

Glycogen Phosphorylase catalyzes phosphorolytic

cleavage of the (14) glycosidic linkages of glycogen,
releasing glucose-1-phosphate as reaction product.
glycogen(n residues) + Pi 
glycogen (n–1 residues) + glucose-1-phosphate
This phosphorolysis may be compared to hydrolysis:
Hydrolysis: R-O-R' + HOH  R-OH + R'-OH
Phosphorolysis: R-O-R' + HO-PO32-  R-OH + R'-O-PO32-
 H O
Pyridoxal phosphate O C
O
(PLP), a derivative of P
H2
C OH
vitamin B6, serves as O
O
prosthetic group for 
N CH3
Glycogen Phosphorylase. H
p yrid o x al p h o sp h ate (P L P )
 lysine Enz
H
(C H 2 ) 4
H3N+ C COO
N+
CH2 O HC H
O H2
CH2 P C O
O
CH2
O

CH2 N CH3
H
 NH3 Enzym e (Lys)-PLP Schiff base

Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) is held at the active site by a

Schiff base linkage, formed by reaction of the aldehyde of
PLP with the -amino group of a lysine residue.
In contrast to its role in other enzymes, the phosphate of
PLP is involved in acid/base catalysis by Phosphorylase.
 Enz

(C H 2 ) 4

N+
O HC H
O
The Pi substrate binds P
H2
C O
between the phosphate of O
O
PLP and the glycosidic O

linking the terminal glucose N CH3
H
residue of the glycogen.
Enzym e (Lys)-PLP Schiff base

After the phosphate substrate donates H+ during cleavage

of the glycosidic bond, it receives H+ from the phosphate
moiety of PLP.
PLP then takes back the H+ as the phosphate O attacks C1
of the cleaved glucose to yield glucose-1-phosphate.
Glycogen
Phosphorylase: GlcNAc
PLP
a homodimeric
enzyme, subject to
allosteric control.
inhibitor
It transitions between
“relaxed” (active) &
“tense” (inhibited) PLP
GlcNAc
conformations.
Diagram comparing
Human Liver
relaxed and tense Glycogen Phosphorylase PDB 1EM6
conformations.
A glucose analog, N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), is
adjacent to pyridoxal phosphate at the active site in the
crystal structure shown.
A class of drugs
developed for treating GlcNAc
PLP
the hyperglycemia of
diabetes (chloroindole-
carboxamides), inhibit inhibitor
liver Phosphorylase
allosterically.
These inhibitors bind GlcNAc PLP
at the dimer interface,
stabilizing the inactive Human Liver
(tense) conformation. Glycogen Phosphorylase PDB 1EM6

Question: Why would an inhibitor of Glycogen

Phosphorylase be a suitable treatment for diabetes?
A glycogen storage site on the surface of the
Phosphorylase enzyme binds the glycogen particle.
Given the distance between storage & active sites,
Phosphorylase can cleave (14) linkages only to
within 4 residues of an (16) branch point.
This is called a "limit branch".
Explore the structure of muscle Glycogen
Phosphorylase with Chime.
Debranching enzyme has 2 independent active sites,
consisting of residues in different segments of a single
polypeptide chain:
 The transferase of the debranching enzyme
transfers 3 glucose residues from a 4-residue limit
branch to the end of another branch, diminishing the
limit branch to a single glucose residue.
 The(16) glucosidase moiety of the debranching
enzyme then catalyzes hydrolysis of the (16)
linkage, yielding free glucose. This is a minor
fraction of glucose released from glycogen.
 View an animation
The major product of glycogen breakdown is
glucose-1-phosphate, from Phosphorylase activity.
 E n zym e -S e r-O P O 3 2  E n zym e -S e r-O H E n zym e -S e r-O P O 3 2 

CH 2 OH CH 2 O P O 3 2  CH 2 O P O 3 2 
H O H H O H H O H
H H H
OH H OH H OH H
2 2
OH OPO3 OH OPO3 OH OH

H OH H OH H OH
glu co se -1 -p h o sp h ate glu co se -6 -p h o sp h ate

Phosphoglucomutase catalyzes the reversible reaction:

glucose-1-phosphate  glucose-6-phosphate
A serine OH at the active site donates & accepts Pi.
The bisphosphate is not released.
Phosphoglycerate Mutase has a similar mechanism, but
instead uses His for Pi transfer.
 Glycogen Glucose
Hexokinase or Glucokinase
Glucose-6-Pase
Glucose-1-P Glucose-6-P Glucose + Pi
Glycolysis
Pathway
Pyruvate
Glucose metabolism in liver.

Glucose-6-phosphate may enter Glycolysis or (mainly in

liver) be dephosphorylated for release to the blood.
Liver Glucose-6-phosphatase catalyzes the following,
essential to the liver's role in maintaining blood glucose:
glucose-6-phosphate + H2O  glucose + Pi
Most other tissues lack this enzyme.
Glycogen Phosphorylase in muscle is subject to allosteric
regulation by AMP, ATP, and glucose-6-phosphate.
A separate isozyme of Phosphorylase expressed in liver is
less sensitive to these allosteric controls.
 AMP (present significantly when ATP is depleted)
activates Phosphorylase, promoting the relaxed
conformation.
 ATP & glucose-6-phosphate, which both have
binding sites that overlap that of AMP, inhibit
Phosphorylase, promoting the tense conformation.
 Thus glycogen breakdown is inhibited when ATP and
glucose-6-phosphate are plentiful.
 Glycogen Glucose
Hexokinase or Glucokinase
Glucose-6-Pase
Glucose-1-P Glucose-6-P Glucose + Pi
Glycolysis
Pathway
Pyruvate
Glucose metabolism in liver.
Glycogen Synthase is allosterically activated by
glucose-6-P (opposite of effect on Phosphorylase).
Thus Glycogen Synthase is active when high blood
glucose leads to elevated intracellular glucose-6-P.
It is useful to a cell to store glucose as glycogen when the
input to Glycolysis (glucose-6-P), and the main product
of Glycolysis (ATP), are adequate.
Regulation by covalent modification
(phosphorylation):
The hormones glucagon and epinephrine activate
G-protein coupled receptors to trigger cAMP cascades.
 Both hormones are produced in response to low
blood sugar.
 Glucagon, which is synthesized by -cells of the
pancreas, activates cAMP formation in liver.
 Epinephrine activates cAMP formation in muscle.
The cAMP cascade results in phosphorylation of a serine
hydroxyl of Glycogen Phosphorylase, which promotes
transition to the active (relaxed) state.
The phosphorylated enzyme is less sensitive to allosteric
inhibitors.
Thus, even if cellular ATP & glucose-6-phosphate are
high, Phosphorylase will be active.
The glucose-1-phosphate produced from glycogen in liver
may be converted to free glucose for release to the blood.
With this hormone-activated regulation, the needs of the
organism take precedence over needs of the cell.
Commonly used terminology:
 "a" is the form of the enzyme that tends to be active,
and independent of allosteric regulators (in the case
of Glycogen Phosphorylase, when phosphorylated).
 "b" is the form of the enzyme that is dependent on
local allosteric controls (in the case of Glycogen
Phosphorylase when dephosphorylated).
 Hormone (epinephrine or glucagon)
via G Protein (G-GTP)

Adenylate cyclase Adenylate cyclase

(inactive) (active)
catalysis
ATP cyclic AMP + PPi
Activation Phosphodiesterase
Signal AMP

cascade by Protein kinase A Protein kinase A

(inactive) (active)
which ATP
Glycogen ADP

Phosphorylase Phosphorylase kinase Phosphorylase kinase (P)

(b-inactive) (a-active)
is activated. Phosphatase ATP
Pi ADP

Phosphorylase Phosphorylase (P)

(b-allosteric) (a-active)
Phosphatase
Pi
The cAMP cascade induced in liver by glucagon or
epinephrine has the opposite effect on glycogen
synthesis.
Glycogen Synthase is phosphorylated by Protein
Kinase A as well as by Phosphorylase Kinase.
Phosphorylation of Glycogen Synthase promotes the
"b" (less active) conformation.
The cAMP cascade thus inhibits glycogen synthesis.
Instead of being converted to glycogen, glucose-1-P
in liver may be converted to glucose-6-P, and
dephosphorylated for release to the blood.
 Glycogen Glucose
Hexokinase or Glucokinase
Glucose-6-Pase
Glucose-1-P Glucose-6-P Glucose + Pi
Glycolysis
Pathway
Pyruvate
Glucose metabolism in liver.

High cytosolic glucose-6-phosphate, which would result

when blood glucose is high, turns off the signal with
regard to glycogen synthesis.
The conformation of Glycogen Synthase induced by the
allosteric activator glucose-6-phosphate is susceptible to
dephosphorylation by Protein Phosphatase.
Insulin, produced in response to high blood glucose,
triggers a separate signal cascade that leads to
activation of Phosphoprotein Phosphatase.
This phosphatase catalyzes removal of regulatory
phosphate residues from Phosphorylase, Phosphorylase
Kinase, & Glycogen Synthase enzymes.
Thus insulin antagonizes effects of the cAMP cascade
induced by glucagon & epinephrine.
 Phosphorylase Kinase inactive

Phosphorylase Kinase-Ca++ partly active

P-Phosphorylase Kinase-Ca++ fully active

Ca++ also regulates glycogen breakdown in muscle.

During activation of contraction in skeletal muscle, Ca++
is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to promote
actin/myosin interactions.
The released Ca++ also activates Phosphorylase Kinase,
which in muscle includes calmodulin as its  subunit.
Phosphorylase Kinase is partly activated by binding of
Ca++ to this subunit.
 Phosphorylase Kinase inactive

Phosphorylase Kinase-Ca++ partly active

P-Phosphorylase Kinase-Ca++ fully active

Phosphorylation of the enzyme, via a cAMP cascade

induced by epinephrine, results in further activation.
These regulatory processes ensure release of phosphorylated
glucose from glycogen, for entry into Glycolysis to provide
ATP needed for muscle contraction.
During extended exercise, as glycogen stores become
depleted, muscle cells rely more on glucose uptake from
the blood, and on fatty acid catabolism as a source of ATP.
A genetic defect in the isoform of an enzyme expressed in
liver causes the following symptoms:
 After eating a CHO meal, elevated blood levels of
glucose, lactate, & lipids.
 During fasting, low blood glucose & high ketone bodies.
Which liver enzyme is defective? Glycogen Synthase
Explain Symptoms:
 After eating, blood glucose is high because liver cannot
store it as glycogen. Some excess glucose is processed
via Glycolysis to produce lactate & fatty acid precursors.
 During fasting, glucose is low because the liver lacks
glycogen stores for generation of glucose.
Ketone bodies are produced as an alternative fuel.
Question: How would you nutritionally treat
deficiency of liver Glycogen Synthase?
 Frequent meals of complex carbohydrates
(avoiding simple sugars that would lead to a rapid
rise in blood glucose)
 Meals high in protein to provide substrates for
gluconeogenesis.
Glycogen Storage
Diseases are genetic glycogen
enzyme deficiencies
associated with excessive
glucose-1-P
glycogen accumulation
Glucose-6-Phosphatase
within cells.
glucose-6-P glucose + Pi
Some enzymes whose
deficiency leads to fructose-6-P
glycogen accumulation Phosphofructokinase
are part of the inter- fructose-1,6-bisP
connected pathways
Glycolysis continued
shown here.
Symptoms in addition to excess glycogen storage:
 When a genetic defect affects mainly an isoform of an
enzyme expressed in liver, a common symptom is
hypoglycemia, relating to impaired mobilization of
glucose for release to the blood during fasting.
 When the defect is in muscle tissue, weakness &
difficulty with exercise result from inability to
increase glucose entry into Glycolysis during exercise.
 Additional symptoms depend on the particular
enzyme that is deficient.
 Symptoms, in addition to
Glycogen Storage Disease
glycogen accumulation
Type I, liver deficiency of hypoglycemia (low blood
Glucose-6-phosphatase (von glucose) when fasting, liver
Gierke's disease) enlargement.
Type IV, deficiency of liver dysfunction and early
branching enzyme in various death.
organs, including liver
(Andersen's disease)
Type V, muscle deficiency of muscle cramps with exercise.
Glycogen Phosphorylase
(McArdle's disease)
Type VII, muscle deficiency of inability to exercise.
Phosphofructokinase.