Post-harvest Handling

and Seed Technology

Vivian D. Estrada
Instructor I
Week 1 • Define post-harvest technology
• Determine the importance and objectives
• Explain the causes of post-harvest food losses and the
prevention measures.
• Carryout post-harvest food loss assessment; and
• Determine the pre-harvest factors affecting the post-harvest
life and quality aspects.

Week 2 • Classify fruits and vegetable based on their morpho-

anatomical structures and length of postharvest life.
• Discuss the morpho-anatomical structures of fruits and
vegetables on the length of their postharvest life.
• Determine the chemical bases for handling common fruits
and vegetables.
• Explain important physiological processes that affect
postharvest life of fruits and vegetables.
• Determine the factors affecting the physiological processes
of fruits and vegetable after harvest
Why post-harvest
losses happen?
What are the results of poor post-
harvest handling?
Why do we need to
learn post-harvest
technology?
 Classification of Crop Produce
Fruits Vegetable
 botanically, are mature  all others parts of plant
ovaries and seed-bearing which are edible
parts of plants.

Harvested vegetable fruits and vegetable have the following characteristics:

1. High moisture content
2. 2. Highly perishable
MORPHO-ANATOMICAL BASIS FOR
PERISHABILITY OF FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES

1. Plant part or organ utilized

2. Nature of the Fruit wall
3. Surface area to volume ratio
4. Nature of the cuticle
5. Number of Stomata
6. Amount of Hairs and/or Spines
7. Presence of Lenticels
8. Presence of laticifers
1. Plant part or organ utilized
 Leaves and flowers wilt
 Flowers open
 Fruit ripens
 Shoot tips elongate
 Tubers sprout
 2. Nature of the Fruit wall
 Thin fruit wall are most susceptible to damage.
 Leathery peel are less susceptible
 Thick and hard fruit wall can withstand damage.
 3. Surface area to volume ratio
 The greater the surface area to volume ratio, the
faster the respiration, transpiration and penetration of
microorganisms and chemicals
4. Nature of the Cuticle
 The thicker and more complex
cuticle, the greater the protective
capacity for:
 Moisture loss
 Penetration of
microorganisms
 Mechanical damage
 Temperature change
 Escape of flavor components
 5. Number of Stomata
 More stomata, the faster will be the deterioration
of the commodity
 Pechay has 13,000 stomates per cm3
 Immature fruits have more stomata
 6. Amount of Hairs and/or
Spines
 Emergences – visible hairs or
spines
 Trichomes – hairs that are not
visible to the naked eye
 Spintern – special name for the
hairs of rambutan
 The more trichomes, the faster
the deterioration.
 7. Presence of Lenticels
 Lenticels – circular protruding air-filled cells
with a central opening
 8. Presence of Laticifers
 Laticifers – sap or latex producing ducts
Postharvest Physiology

 Respiration
 Transpiration
 Ethylene Production
 Respiration
 an oxidation process
(C6H12O6 + O2 -- CO2 + H2O + energy)
 necessary for cells to maintain structure and for ripening processes such
as color and flavor development.

 Low respiration rates (about 1.52 mg CO2/kg)

ex. Storage organs
 Intermediate respiration rates (about 70 mg CO2/kg)
Ex. Fruits at physiological maturity
 High respiration rates (about 570.6 mg CO2/kg)
ex. Organs at immature stage
 Transpiration
 Horticultural products can be regarded as “water inside
pleasing packages” or water with a mechanical structure”

Consequences of water loss:

o Loss in weight of all commodities
o Softening of fruits and vegetables
o Wilting of leaves and flowers
o Shriveling of fruits and root crops
o Stem end rind breakdown of oranges
o Discoloration of rambutan and lanzones
 Ethylene Production
 Ethylene (C2H2) is a hormone in gas form which causes
the following in harvested crops:
 Hasten ripening
 Promotes sprouting of root, tuber and bulb crops
 Induce abscission of leave, petals or flower
Conditions which will slow down the rate
of respiration and transpiration in plants

 Low Temperature
 low oxygen in the immediate
environment
 High relative humidity
CHEMICAL BASIS OF HANDLING
THE HARVESTED COMMODITIES

 1. Carbohydrate Content
 2. Presence of Protopectins
 3. Pigment
 4. Fats and Acids
1. Carbohydrate Content
 More carbohydrates, last longer
 Sugar to starch = loss of sweetness
 Starch to sugar = undesirable for
processing (potatoes)
 Sugar causes browning during cooking
2. Presence of Protopectins
 Deposited in the cell wall and middle lamella, act as
cementing materials.
 Protopectin, pectin, pectinic acids, pectic acids
 High in pectin = guava, pineapples and oranges
 Low in pectin = cherries and strawberries
 Used for making jam and jellies.
3. Pigments
 Responsible for specific color of some
commodities
4. Fats and Acids

 Saturated fats – harmful and increases

cholesterol level
 Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated –
not harmful
DURABLES vs PERISHABLES
Procedures in Postharvest Handling of
Fruits and Vegetable
Maturity
 Maturity is considered as “that stage at
which a commodity has reach a
sufficient stage of development that
after harvesting and postharvest
handling, its quality will be at least the
minimum acceptable to the ultimate
consumer”

 Maturity indices = Harvest Indices

 Sensory and nutritional quality
 Used -fresh and market or processed
 Adequate shelf-life
 Facilitate marketing standards
 Physiological Maturity – the stage of development
when a plant part will continue development even if
detached; mature fruits

 Horticultural maturity – the stage of development

when a plant part possesses the necessary
characteristics for use by consumers.
Maturity Indices of Common Fruits and
Vegetables
 used to determine maturity, to predict harvest date and
to assess quality of crop
Practical uses of Maturity Indices
 1. Export markets often include a guide for minimum and
maximum maturity that is acceptable for a given commodity.
 2. Marketing strategies to obtain premium prices for
commodities “Supply and Demand” delaying or expediting
harvesting and shipping of particular crop at the beginning or
end of the season requires a measure of maturity if quality is to
be maintained.
 3.Efficient used of labor. A measure of maturity is important for
organizing start and end dates for harvesting to ensure labor
and equipment availability and reduce harvesting cost.
Types of maturity indices
 1. Age-related
 2. Physical properties
 3. Morphological changes
 4. Chemical composition
1. Age-related
 a) number of days from planting to maturity
 b) days from full bloom to harvest
 2. Physical properties
 a) External and internal color
 b) Size- Size may not be a good indicator of
maturity as can be influenced by many factors but
useful for peas, beans, potatoes, celery.
 c) Shape; Some crops are harvested when reaching a
certain shape. For example, banana (3/4 full, full3/4
and round full), cucumber.
 d) Solidity
 e) Texture
  Firmness
  Tenderness
3. Morphological changes
 a) Development of an abscission layer- muskmelons
 b) Development of a waxy layer on the epidermis-plums,
grapes, honey dew melons
 c) Development of netting on the surface- muskmelons
 d) Internal structure – formation of gel-like material
surrounding the seeds of tomatoes e) Prior to tip opening –
asparagus
 4. Chemical composition
  Starch – apple, pears
  Soluble solids/sugars- apples pears, stone fruits, grapes
  Acids; sugar/acid ration- citrus, pomegranates, kiwifruit
  Juice content- citrus fruits
  Percent dry weight- avocado
  Astringency- persimmon, date-low levels desirable
  Ethylene production-apple, pears (particularly those destined for long
term storage)
Instruments to measure maturity

 Refractometer - measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved

sucrose to water in liquid.
None-destructive maturity analysis
 Electronic Nose- used to detect aroma volatiles in a
range of food type.
 Acoustic firmness sensor – Methods taps the fruit
and then “listen” for vibrations (resonance
attenuated vibration).
 Spectroscopic analysis- various different methods
based upon the interaction of atoms or molecules
with the electromagnetic spectrum
 Non-Climacteric Fruits- fruits that are not
capable of continuing their ripening process once
removed from the plant.
 Climacteric Fruits- fruits that can be harvested
mature and ripened off the plant.
 Harvest Operation

Harvesting operation includes:

 1. Identification and judging the maturity of fruits
 2. Selection of mature fruits
 3. Detaching or separating of the fruits from tree
 4. Collection of matured fruits
 Methods of Harvesting

 1. Manual Harvesting - Harvesting by one’s own

hand is called manual harvesting.
 2. Mechanical Harvesting - In this method,
numbers of mechanical devices are used for
harvesting the produce on commercial scale.
 Maturity Indices of Common Vegetables

 Broccoli/Cauliflower- based on size and florets are closed

 Carrots- Size of roots
 Lettuce, Head- based on size, firmness, solidity, flavor, sweetness, bitterness
 Lettuce, Romaine-size and number of leaves
 Onion/Garlic- based on size, drying and collapse of the neck, and drying of leaf
scales
 Potatoes- death of the plant, size of tubers, starch content of tubers, specific gravity,
and periderm development.
 Cucumber- based on size, external color, seeds are tender
 Okra- based on size, external color, young and tender
 Beans- based on size, fruits are tender
 Pepper- based on size, color, firmness, seed and locules development
 Tomato- External and internal color, development of locules (jelly),
firmness, development of cuticle
Week 4

Packaging Operations
A. Importance of Proper packaging the Shelf Life of Fruits and
Vegetables
B. Criteria for choosing the Proper Packaging Materials
C. Types of Packaging Materials
D. Packing House handling
E. Pre-storage treatments for fresh fruits and vegetables
 Learning Outcomes

 Explain the importance of proper packaging in prolonging the shelf life

of fruits and vegetables;
 Enumerate the criteria for choosing the proper packaging materials;
 Identify different types of packaging materials;
 Explain the different practices in packing house handling; and
 Explain various pre-storage treatments for fresh fruits and vegetables
Importance of Proper Packaging in Prolonging
the Shelf Life of Harvested Commodities
 protects the product from mechanical injuries, tampering, and
contamination from physical, chemical, and biological sources.
 Ex. Bags, crates, hampers, baskets, cartons, bulk bins etc.
 Criteria in Choosing the Right Packaging
Materials
 1. Recyclability/Biodegradability - waste disposal
restrictions for packaging
 2. Variety - greater use of bulk packages for processors
and wholesale buyers and smaller packages for consumers.
 3. Sales Appeal - High quality graphics are increasingly
being used to boost sales appeal.
 4. Shelf Life - to extend shelf life and reduce waste.
 Criteria in Choosing the Right Packaging
Materials

 5. Container - The container must enclose the produce

in convenient must enclose the produce in convenient
units for handling and distribution.
 6. Protection - The package must protect the produce
from mechanical damage and poor environmental
conditions during handling and distribution.
 7. Identification - The package must identify and
provide useful information about the produce
Types of Packaging Materials

 Wood
 Plastic
 Packing House Handling
 preparation of produce for market is carried out in a packing
house, which may range from a simple, on-the-farm thatched
shed to an automated regional packaging line
 Packinghouse Handling include

Packinghouse Handling include

  Sorting; removes foreign matter (stones, leaves, debris)
  Cleaning and washing: hand washing or on a line use only clean
running water.
  Fungicide treatment: post-harvest application of fungicide is
usual on crops such as bananas, yams and citrus fruit
  Quality selection and grading; manually or on a packing line.
Recommended Practices in Packing Houses

  Use chlorinated water to wash produce.

  Change water when dirty
  Wash, rinse and sanitize packing lines surfaces at end of each day.
  Store packaging materials in a clean area.
Pre-Storage Treatments

 Cleaning  Pre cooling

 Washing  Curing
 Sorting  Desapping
 Grading  Chemical treatments
 Waxing  Irradiation
 Packing  Vapor heat treatment
Cleaning

 treatment given to remove adhering dust, dirt, extraneous matter,

pathogenic load etc. from the surface of a commodity.
 Methods of cleaning
 a. Dry methods (Dusting etc.)
 b. Wet method (Washing)
Sorting and Grading
 Fruits are graded on the basis of their color, size and weight and
sorted for freeness from damage/diseases.
 Waxing / Coating

 process of applying wax on the surface of commodity by spray, dip

or immersion, brushing, fogging or foaming.
 Types of waxes : Paraffin wax, carnauba wax, bees wax etc.
Pre-cooling
 It is the prompt cooling of the commodity immediately after harvest
(generally within 24 hours of harvest), to its safe storage temperature,
which aims at removal of field heat.
 Rate of cooling depends on:
• Initial product temperature
• Rate of flow cooling media around the commodity
• Temperature difference between produce and cooling media
• Thermal conductivity of produce.
Chemical treatment

 Various chemicals are applied to fruits and vegetables in order

to control post-harvest and pest infestations.
 Methods of application of chemicals: Dipping
Curing

 It is a technique where the commodity is left in the field itself in a

heap under shade for few days. It is an effective operation to reduce
water loss during storage from hardly vegetables e.g. onion, garlic,
sweet potato etc.
 The essential conditions during curing are: * Heat (~30 degree
Celsius) • Good ventilation • Low relative humidity (RH)
Irradiation

 Fruits are exposed to various doses of electromagnetic

radiations for small duration (few sec to few min.) of time
under highly controlled conditions
Vapor heat treatment

 The treatment consists of stacking the fruit in boxes in a room

which is heated and humidified by injection of steam.
 The most difficult stage to control by VHT is larval stage as the
insect goes further into the fruit and away from the surface thus
requiring high temperatures for short time
Desapping

 Desapping is done by holding the mango fruits upside down

while cutting the stalk of fruits. The stalks of mango fruits are
cut very carefully to 0.5 to 1.0 cm by trained workers by using a
scissor with sharp long nose to avoid causing skin injury.
Week 5

Transport and Storage

A. Characteristics of ideal transport for fresh fruits and vegetables
B. Effect of refrigerated storage on deterioration of Fresh fruits and
Vegetables
C. Importance of Appropriate Transport in the Marketing of Produce
D. Damages incurred by fruits and vegetables during transport
Learning Outcomes

 Characterize the ideal transport for fresh fruits and vegetables

 Explain how refrigerated storage can reduce deterioration of fresh
fruits and vegetables;
 Explain the importance of appropriate transport in the marketing of
produce; and
 Discuss the fruit and vegetable damages incurred during transport
 Transport and Storage of
Fruits and Vegetables
 Characteristics:
 Have well designed and adequately equipped compartments
 Have slip resistance floors
 Perfectly insulated
 Have adequate and well-positioned doors for loading and unloading
 Allow effective distribution of cool air
 Allow monitoring and temperature control
 Proper air spaces between pallets and room walls to ensure proper air
circulation.
Effect of Refrigerated Storage on
Deterioration of Fresh fruits and Vegetables

 Why is temperature very critical during

storage?
Fruits and vegetables have living cells that continue
the following metabolic processes:
Importance of Appropriate Transport in
Marketing of Produce

 Transportation
is a big and often most important factor in the marketing of
fresh produce. Ideally, transport would take produce from the
grower directly to the consumer. Losses directly attributed to
transport conditions can be high.
Damages Incurred by Fruits and Vegetables
during Transport
 Causes of Mechanical Damage during Transport
 Careless handling of packed produce during loading and
unloading
 Vibration (shaking) of the vehicle, especially on bad roads
 Fast driving and poor condition of the vehicle
 Poor stowage, which allows packages in transit to sway or the
stow may collapse
 Packages stacked too high, the movement of produce which a
package increases in relation to its height in the stack
Week 6-7
Post-harvest Control of Senescence and Related Processes
A. Definition of Modified Atmosphere and Modified Atmosphere Packaging
B. Commercial Uses of Modified Storage
C. Principles of Modified Atmosphere Storage
D. Advantages and Disadvantages of Modified Atmosphere Storage;
E. Definition of Modified Humidity Packaging
The Role of Ethylene in Post-harvest Biology
F. Ethylene as growth regulator in plants
G. The Beneficial and Detrimental effects of ethylene in Post-harvest life of fresh produce
H. Methods of controlling ethylene in Post-Harvest
I. Methods of increasing ethylene in Post-harvest Technology
Learning Outcomes
 Define modified atmosphere and modified atmosphere packaging;
 Explain the commercial uses of modified storage packaging;
 Discuss the principles of modified atmosphere storage; and
 Define modified humidity packaging
 Define ethylene
 Enumerate and discuss the detrimental and beneficial effects of ethylene in
post-harvest life of fresh produce
 Discuss the role of ethylene in post-harvest shelf life
 Name the methods of controlling and increasing ethylene on the post-
harvest life of fresh produce
Modified atmosphere
Modified atmosphere is a condition of atmosphere (normally in a
package of commodity) around the commodity that is different
from that of air (78.08% N2, 20.95% O2, and 0.03% CO2). Usually
this involves reduction of O2 and/or
elevation of CO2 concentrations.
 the reduced amount of oxygen and higher carbon dioxide
in the package also reduce ethylene action thereby
delaying the ripening and senescence processes. The result
increases the product’s shelf life
Advantages and Disadvantages of Modified
Atmosphere Storage
 Potential Benefits of Modified Atmosphere Storage
1. Retardation of senescence
2. Reduction of fruit sensitivity to ethylene action
3. Alleviation of certain physiological disorders
4. Directly and indirectly affect postharvest pathogens
5. Useful tool for insect control in some commodities
 Potential Harmful
1. Initiation or aggravation of certain physiological disorders
2. Irregular ripening of fruits
3. Off-flavor and off odors
4. Susceptibility to decay may increase
5. Sprouting and retardation of periderm development are
stimulated in some root and tuber vegetables, such as
potatoes.
Modified Humidity Packaging
 Reduction in relative humidity to an optimal amount may be
critical for the success of MAP research: CaCl2, Sorbitol,
NaCl, xylitol and KCl.
 Example: The storage life of package red-type tomato fruit at
20oC was extended from 5 days using no pouch to 15-17 days
with a pouch containing NaCl.
 Ethylene
 A colorless gas with a faint sweetish smell that is naturally
produced ripening hormone of some fruit

 Ethylene as growth regulator

 Ethylene suppresses its own synthesis in vegetative tissues,
non-climacteric fruits and in immature fruit tissues.
 Ethylene enhances its own synthesis in ripening climacteric
fruits.
Ethylene stimulates:
 Anthocyanin synthesis in ripening fruits
 Chlorophyll destruction and yellowing
 Seed germination
 Adventitious root formation
 Respiration
 Flower initiation
 Abscission and senescence
Ethylene inhibits:

 Auxin transport
 Shoot and root elongation
Week 8
Loss Assessment and Quality Evaluation
A. Post-harvest Goals
B. History of Post-harvest Practices
C. Characteristics of perishable Commodities
D. Estimated Post-harvest Losses
E. Causes of Post-harvest Loss
F. Post-harvest Compositional Changes
G. Post-harvest Morphological Changes
H. Post-harvest Physiological Disorders
Learning Outcomes

 Demonstrate Post-harvest goals

 State the characteristics of perishable commodities
 Identify the causes of post-harvest losses
 Identify and describe post-harvest changes
The Postharvest Goals
 1. Harvest the product at its optimum maturity
 2. Maintain the product’s internal and external quality
throughout packing, storage and distribution
 3. Deliver the fruits to consumers at the time and in a form
that they will purchase it
History of Post-harvest

 Early postharvest practices are very limited

 All the postharvest methods employed earlier kill the
product.
 Processing made the product easier to transport and can be
stored longer period than the perishable nature of
unprocessed fruits and vegetables.
 7,000 B C - Basket making was developed and became popular during
 9,000 BC - Storage practices in underground pits or silos was developed in
1803, ice refrigeration was developed to extend the shelf life of commodities
 1855 - mechanical refrigeration was invented.
 1872 - ice refrigerated rail cars was widely used to transport perishable
commodities
 1889 - Food preservation become more popular when ammonia refrigeration
was invented
 1929 - Commercialization of controlled storage to preserve perishable food
products was started in England
Post-harvest Losses
 monetary value of the commodity
 other losses are in terms of:
1. Loss of energy and labor during packinghouse operations
2. Loss of materials such as packaging
3. Loss in terms of cost of waste disposal
4. Loss of food value such as vitamins and other nutrients
5. Loss of organoleptic quality through the loss of color,
water loss and carbohydrate changes.
Causes of Postharvest Loss
Internal Factors Environmental Factors
1. Respiration 1. Temperature
2. Physical damage
2. Compositional changes 3. Pathogens
3. Morphological changes 4. Relative humidity
4. Physiological disorders 5. Atmospheric composition
6. Light
5. General senescence 7. Gravity
8. Rodents and other animals
9. Contamination
Respiration and Shelf Life
 Respiration and shelf life are inversely related
 The higher the respiration rate of the commodity, the lesser
the shelf life is. Commodities with lesser or slower rate of
respiration have longer shelf life.
Temperature and Respiration

 Temperature is the most important factor influencing the

postharvest life of the given commodity
 Temperature dictates the speed of chemical reactions
including respiration.
Postharvest Compositional Changes
 Postharvest compositional changes are:
1. Water loss which resulted to wilting and shriveling
2. Loss of nutrients
3. Loss of vitamin contents
4. Loss of antioxidants
5. Changes from starch to sugar or sugar to starch
Postharvest Morphological Changes

 Characteristics Change
 Color, Shape, Deterioration change etc.
Postharvest Physiological Disorders
 A tissue damage or breakdown which not caused by pathogens, insects
or mechanical damage is a physiological disorder.
 Low temperature may cause chilling injury, freezing injury.
 High temperature may also cause physiological disorders.
 Altered atmospheric gas concentration may also cause physiological
disorders.
 Low or elevated carbon dioxide may alter the chlorophyll content of the
commodity.
Week 9
Part B. Science and Technology of Seed Production, Processing and
Storage, Testing and Quality Control
Reproductive Processes in Plants
A. Flowering
B. Flower Morphology
C. Physiology of Flowering
D. Photoperiodism
E. Phytochrome
F. Importance of Photoperiodism
Learning Outcomes

 Define flowering
 Describe the difference between short day plants and long day
plants
 Describe how photoperiod affects flowering of crop plants
 Discuss how phytochrome affects flowering of plants
 Explain the difference between pollination and fertilization
Photoperiodic effect
 Response
 Plant response as conditioned by daylength