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T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Chapter 8 - Contents

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…… Chapter 8 - Contents

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8.1 Need and Properties of Line Codes

Properties of line Codes

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8.2 Line Encoding Techniques

Line Encoding Techniques

Unipolar (UP) Polar Bi-phase (Bi-φ) Bipolar (BP)

UP-NRZ NRZ-L Bi-φ-L BP-NRZ

(Manchester)
UP-RZ NRZ-M HDB-NRZ
Differential
Manchester
NRZ-S BP-RZ
Bi-φ-M
BP-RZ-AMI

Bi-φ-S
B8ZS/B6ZS/B3ZS

Figure 8.1 Line Encoding Techniques

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Unipolar non-return-to-zero (UP-NRZ)

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence

+V
Data
Waveform
0
UP-NRZ (+V)

0
Data
Waveform
-V
UP-NRZ (-V)
Tb Tb

Figure 8.2 UP-NRZ Line Encoding Waveform

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Unipolar return-to-zero (UP-RZ)

Binary 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
data
sequence
Data +V
Waveform 0
UP-RZ
Tb

Tb/2

Figure 8.3 UP-RZ Line Encoding Waveform

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Polar Line Encoding

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence

+V
Data
Waveform
0
NRZ-L
(Polar); t
+V for 1 -V
-V for 0 Tb Tb

Figure 8.4 NRZ-L (Polar) Line Encoding Waveform

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….. Polar Line Encoding

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence

+V
Data 0
Waveform
t
NRZ-M
(Polar) -V
Tb Tb

Figure 8.5 NRZ-M (Polar) Line Encoding Waveform

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….. Polar Line Encoding

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence

+V

Data 0
Waveform
t
NRZ-S (Polar)
-V
Tb Tb

Figure 8.6 NRZ-S (Polar) Line Encoding Waveform

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Bi-phase (Bi-φ) Line Encoding

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence

+V
Data Waveform
Bi-φ-L
0
Manchester t
-V
Tb

Tb/2

Figure 8.7 Manchester (Bi-φ-L) Line Encoding

Waveform
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…. Bi-phase (Bi-φ) Line Encoding

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence
+V
Data 0
Waveform t
Differential
Manchester -V
Tb

Tb/2

Figure 8.8 Differential Manchester Line Encoding

Waveform
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…. Bi-phase (Bi-φ) Line Encoding

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence

+V
Data 0
Waveform
Bi-φ-M
t
-V
Tb

Tb/2

Figure 8.9 Bi-φ-M Line Encoding Waveform

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… Bi-phase (Bi-φ) Line Encoding

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence

+V
Data 0
Waveform
t
Bi-φ-M
-V
Tb

Tb/2

Figure 8.10 Bi-φ-S Line Encoding Waveform

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Bipolar or Multi-level Binary Line Encoding

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence

+V
Data
Waveform 0
BP-NRZ t
-V
Tb Tb

Figure 8.11 Bipolar NRZ Line Encoding Waveform

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… Bipolar or Multi-level Binary Line Encoding

Binary data 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
sequence
+V
BP-NRZ 0

-V

HDB-3 1 1 1 0 0 0 V 1 0 1 1 0 1 B 0 0 V B 0 0 V 1
coded bits
+V
HDB-3 0
BP-NRZ t
-V
Tb

Figure 8.12 Bipolar HDB-3 NRZ Line Encoding Waveform

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… Bipolar or Multi-level Binary Line Encoding

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence
+V
Data 0
Waveform t
BP-RZ
-V
Tb

Tb/2

Figure 8.13 Bipolar RZ Line Encoding Waveform

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… Bipolar or Multi-level Binary Line Encoding

Binary data 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
sequence
+V
Data 0
Waveform t
BP-RZ-AMI
-V
Tb

Tb/2

Figure 8.14 BP-RZ-AMI Line Encoding Waveform

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… Bipolar or Multi-level Binary Line Encoding

Original 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
data

BP-NRZ
t

B8ZS pattern
+ - 0 - + 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
Type 1
B8ZS
Type 1
waveform t

Tb

Figure 8.15 B8ZS Signaling Format Type I

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… Bipolar or Multi-level Binary Line Encoding

Original 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
data

BP-NRZ
t

B8ZS pattern
- + 0 + - 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
Type 2
B8ZS
Type 2
t
waveform
Tb

Figure 8.16 B8ZS Signaling Format Type II

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Table 8.1 Comparison of Line Encoding Techniques

S. No. Parameter Polar NRZ Polar RZ (Bi-φ-L) BP-AMI-RZ
1. Transmission of Yes Yes No No
DC component
2. Signaling rate 1/Tb 1/Tb 1/Tb 1/Tb
3. Noise immunity Low Low High High
4. Synchronizing Poor Poor Very good Very good
capability
5. Bandwidth 1/(2Tb) 1/Tb 1/(2Tb) 1/Tb
required
6. Crosstalk High High Low Low
7. Power spectral Mostly in main ---- The whole Mostly power
density (PSD) lobe extending power lies lies upto 2/Tb
upto 1/Tb within 1/Tb

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Practice Questions on Line Encoding Techniques

Q8.1 Draw the waveforms for the binary data sequence 0 1
0 0 1 1 using Unipolar NRZ, Bipolar RZ, and Bipolar
AMI-RZ signaling line encoding formats.

Q8.2 Given the binary data sequence 1 1 1 0 0 1 0. Sketch

the transmitted sequence of rectangular pulses for each of the
following digital data formats: (a) Unipolar RZ; (b) Polar NRZ;
(c) Polar RZ; (d) Manchester; (e) Bipolar AMI RZ

Q8.3 The bit duration of a binary data sequence is specified as

1 ms. Determine the transmission bandwidth requirements if it
is transmitted using Unipolar NRZ, Unipolar RZ, Bipolar RZ, and
Bi-phase RZ line encoding formats.

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8.3 Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

Spectral
density
(W/Hz)

NRZ polar
1.0
NRZ bipolar
0.9 Manchester
0.8 NRZ uniplar
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00

Figure 8.24 Power Spectra of different Binary Data Formats

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8.4 Intersymbol Interference and Equalization

Transmitter Receiver

Transmitting Receiving y(t) y(ti) Decision

Channel
Filter Filter
Discrete HC(f) Sample at time Device Output
HT(f) HR(f)
PAM signal - Noiseless t=iTb binary
x(t) - Dispersive data
Threshold Value

Figure 8.25 Baseband Binary Data Transmission System

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Causes and Effects of ISI

Input pulse Dispersed pulse

Transmis
sion
System >Tb
Tb

Figure 8.26 Dispersed pulse due to ISI

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Pulse shaping to Reduce ISI

One possible 1.0

solution to reduce 2BoP(f)

Inter Symbol 0 1.0 f / Bo

Interference is to p(t)
1.0
use a [(sin x)/x] 0.5
pulse instead of a
rectangular-shaped -3 -2 -1 t/Tb
0 1 2 3

pulse waveform
which can produce Sampling instants

even a zero ISI. This Tb

is known as Nyquist Signaling instants

pulse shaping. Figure 8.27 An Ideal Basic Pulse

Shape and its Plot
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Eye Pattern
An eye pattern, also known as an eye diagram, is a practical
technique for determining the effects of the degradations
introduced by Intersymbol interference into the digital pulses
as the signals travel through the channel to the receiver.

Figure 8.29 A Typical Eye Diagram

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Equalization to Reduce ISI

Equalizers are special filters inserted in the transmission path
to equalize the distortion for all frequencies, creating a
uniform transmission medium and reducing transmission
impairments.

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8.5 Baseband Pulse Shaping for Data Transmission

The design and analysis of a binary baseband PAM system is

aimed at an overall pulse shaping that would yield zero inter-
symbol interference.

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8.6 Baseband Signal Receiver Model

Pulse Signal x(t) Linear y(t) y(t)

∑ time-
s(t) invariant Sample
filter at t=T

Channel noise
n(t) h(t)

Figure 8.36 A Receiver Model

The matched filter is an optimum detector of a known

pulse in the presence of additive white noise.
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Table 8.4 Matched Filters versus Conventional Filters

S. No. Conventional Filters Matched Filters
1. Uniform gain, a linear frequency- Maximum SNR of a known
vs-phase characteristic , minimum signal in the presence of AWGN
attenuation
2. Remove unwanted spectral Matched to the known shape of
components of a received signal the signal being processed
3. Applied to random signals Applied to known signals

4. Preserve the spectral structure of Modifies the spectral structure

signal
5. Isolates and extracts a close Gathers the received signal
estimate of the signal for energy, and at t = Tb, a voltage
presentation to the matched filter proportional to that energy is
produced

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…… Matched Filters

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8.7 Scrambling and Unscrambling

Transmitted data
Modulo-2 sequence
Adder
Feedback shift registers
Input data
sequence
1 2 3 4 5

….001110
1

Figure 8.44 Scrambling

Modulo-2
Received data
sequence
Adder Operation

Clock recovery
….0011101

Feed-forward shift registers

1 2 3 4 5

Modulo-
2 Adder
Modulo-
2 Adder
Output data
sequence

Figure 8.45 Unscrambling Operation

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8.8 Multiplexing in Telecommunications Network

Data flow
Source Destination
1 1
M D
Source E Destination
U
2 M 2
X
4321 ... 4321 U Destination
Source
X 3
3
Source Destination
4 4

Frame Frame

Figure 8.47 A 4-channel TDM System

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PAM/TDM System
Re-
Anti-
construction
aliasing
DeMUX filters
filters
MUX LPF1
LPF1 s1(t)
s1(t)
Communication
Channel LPF2
LPF2 PAM PAM s2(t)
s2(t)
fs Modulator DeMod
fs
LPF3
LPF3 s3(t)
s3(t) Timing Timing .
. Pulses Pulses .
. .
. .
.

LPFn LPFn
sn(t) sn(t)

Figure 8.50 A PAM/TDM System

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Practice Questions on PAM/TDM

Q8.4 Three band-limited signals at 3 kHz, 4 kHz and 5 kHz are
required to be time-division multiplexed. Find the maximum
permissible interval between three successive samples.
Q8.5 Four independent band-limited analog information
signals have bandwidths of 300 Hz, 600 Hz, 800 Hz, and 800 Hz,
respectively. Each signal is sampled at Nyquist rate, and the
samples are time-division multiplexed and transmitted.
Determine the transmitted sample rate in Hz.
Q8.6 24 voice-band signals (each having fm = 4 kHz), are
sampled uniformly with 2 μs pulse duration, and then time-
division multiplexed. An extra pulse of 2 μs duration is added
for synchronization. Assuming Nyquist rate, calculate the
spacing between successive pulses of multiplexed signal.
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Table 8.6 Comparison of TDM and FDM

S. No. TDM FDM
1. Different signals share the time scale Different signals share the frequency scale
using entire frequency band. for entire duration.
2. The analog signals are separated in time The analog signals are separated in
domain but mixed together in the frequency domain but mixed together in
frequency domain. time domain.
3. TDM is implemented using digital FDM is implemented using analog devices
devices and circuits. and circuits.
4. TDM circuits are much simpler to design FDM circuits are complex because FDM
and implement because they are digital equipment consists of analog circuits for
in operation. TDM equipments consists modulators, carrier generators, bandpass
of digital MUX and DEUX. filters, and demodulators for each channel.
5. TDM systems have relatively small In FDM, the nonlinearities present in
interchannel cross talk or ISI which transmitter and receiver circuits produce
requires completely isolated and non- intermodulation and harmonic distortion.
overlapping pulses.
6. In TDM systems, synchronization, timing Distortion becomes major concern when
jitter, and pulse shape inaccuracy the number of channels being multiplexed
becomes major concerns at high bit rate. is large.

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8.10 Single-channel PCM Transmission System

Anti-
aliasing Parallel
filter PCM code
Analog
informatio Sample and PAM Parallel to 8-bit Serial
BPF ADC
n signal hold circuit Serial PCM Code
Converter @64 kbps
(DS0)

Sample Conversion Line Speed

Pulse Clock Clock
@ 8 kHz @1.536 MHz @64 kbps

Figure 8.57 Single-channel PCM System

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8.11 T1 DIGITAL CARRIER SYSTEM

Analog @64 kbps (8-
input bit serial PCM
signals PCM Encoder code)
CH 1 Anti-aliasing Sample & 8-bit A/D Buffer 24 channel
filter Hold circuit & parallel- T
300 Hz – to-serial
3400 Hz D
Sample pulse @ fs M
1.536 MHz
= 8 kHz M
U
PCM Encoder X
CH 2 Anti-aliasing Sample & 8-bit A/D Buffer
& parallel- (Add
300 Hz – filter Hold circuit framing
to-serial
3400 Hz pulse +
Sample pulse @ fs 1.536 MHz Line T1
CH 3 = 8 kHz @ 1.544 Mbps
coder)
*
*
*
CH 23

PCM Encoder
CH 24 Anti-aliasing Sample & 8-bit A/D Buffer Figure 8.59
filter Hold circuit & parallel-
300 Hz – to-serial
3400 Hz
Sample pulse @ fs 1.536 MHz 1.536 MHz
= 8 kHz

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8.12 Digital Signal Hierarchy

PCM Ch1
Ist Level
PCM Ch2 MUX #1 @ 1.544 Mbps
* (24 DS0 (1) DS1 2nd Level
PCM*Ch24 lines) DS1 MUX @ 6.312 Mbps
DS1 (4 DS1 DS2
PCM Ch1
Ist Level DS1 lines) 3rd Level
PCM Ch2 MUX #2 (1) DS2 MUX @ 44.736 Mbps
* (24 DS0 (2) * (7 DS2 DS3
(2)
PCM*Ch24 lines)
(7)
*DS2 lines) @
Each 274.176
PCM Ch1 (1) 4th Level Mbps
Ist Level @ 6.312 Mbps
PCM Ch2 MUX #3 (2) MUX DS4
DS3
* (24 DS0 * (6 DS3
(3)
PCM*Ch24 lines)
DS3
* (6) lines)

PCM Ch1 Each

Ist Level @ 44.736 Mbps
PCM Ch2 MUX #4
* (24 DS0 (4)
Each
PCM*Ch24 lines)
@ 1.544 Mbps
Each @ 64 kbps Figure 8.61

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Table 8.8 Data Rate for Digital Signal (DS) Lines

Digital Transmission No. of PCM voice Raw Data Net Data Rate Minimum Typical
Service Carrier Line# channels Rate (Mbps) bandwidth medium
Line# (Mbps) used
DS1 T1 24 DS0 lines 1.536 1.544 772 kHz Twisted-pair
cable
DS1C T1C 48 DS0 lines (2 DS1 3.088 3.096 1.548 MHz Twisted-pair
lines) cable
DS2 T2 96 DS0 lines (4 DS1 6.176 6.312 3.156 MHz Twisted-pair
lines) cable,
microwave
DS3 T3 672 DS0 lines (28 DS1 44.184 44.736 22.368 MHz Coaxial
lines, or 7 DS2 lines) cable,
microwave

DS4 T4 4032 DS0 lines (168 DS1 268.416 274.176 137.088 MHz Coaxial
lines, or 42 DS2 lines, or cable,
6 DS3 lines) optical fiber
cable

DS-5 T5 8064 DS0 lines 516.096 560.16 280.08 MHz optical fiber
cable

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Digital Signal Hierarchy (European)

PCM Ch1
Ist Level
PCM Ch2 MUX #1 @ 2.048 Mbps
* (32 PCM
(1) E1 2nd Level
* lines)
PCM Ch32 E1 MUX @ 8.448 Mbps
E1 (4 E1
PCM Ch1 E2
Ist Level E1 lines) 3rd Level
PCM Ch2 MUX #2 (1) E2 MUX
(2) @ 34.368 Mbps
* (32 PCM E2 (4 E2
(2) (3)
* lines) E2 lines)
PCM Ch32 (4) @
Each E3 139.264
PCM Ch1 (1) 4th Level Mbps
Ist Level @ 8.448 Mbps
PCM Ch2 MUX #3 (2) MUX E4
E3
* (32 PCM (3) (4 E3
(3) E3
* lines) (4) lines)
PCM Ch32 E3
PCM Ch1 Each
Ist Level
PCM Ch2 @ 34.368 Mbps
MUX #4
* (32 PCM (4)
* Each
PCM Ch32 lines) Figure 8.62
@ 2.048 Mbps
Each @ 64 kbps
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Table 8.9 European Digital Carrier Hierarchy (E1 lines)

Transmission No. of PCM No. of PCM Transmission bit

Carrier Line# voice channels control channels Rate (Mbps)

E1 30 2.048
2

E2 (= 4 E1 lines) 120 8.448*

8

E3 (= 4 E2 lines) 480 34.368*

32

E4 (= 4 E3 lines) 1920 139.264*

128

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Chapter Outcomes

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…. Chapter Outcomes

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Reference

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About the Author

T. L. Singal graduated from National Institute of Technology (NIT)
Kurukshetra and post-graduated from Punjab Technical University
Jalandhar in Electronics & Communication Engineering. He began
his career in 1981 with Avionics Design Bureau, HAL, Hyderabad
and worked on Radar Communications System. Then he led R&D
group in a Telecom company and successfully developed Multi-
Access VHF Wireless Communication Systems. He visited Germany
on business trips during 1990-92.

He executed international assignment as Senior Network Consultant with Flextronics

International Inc. Texas, USA during 2000-02. He was associated with Nokia, AT&T,
Cingular Wireless and Nortel Networks, for optimization of 2G/3G Cellular Networks in
USA. Since 2003, he is in teaching profession with reputed engineering institutes in
India. He has several technical research papers published in the IEEE Proceedings,
Journals, and International/National Conferences. He has authored two text-books
`Wireless Communications’ and `Analog & Digital Communications’ with
internationally renowned publisher Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
Contact: [email protected]; +91 98145-42041
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