MATHS PROJECT

11- “F”
ROLL NO. -> 16 - 30
Brief Introduction to Circle, Ellipse, Parabola and
Hyperbola
Circle
A circle is a set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point in the
plane called the center. The distance from the center to any point on the circle is
called the radius .

Standard Equation: For a circle with center (h, k) and radius r, the equation is: (x
- h)² + (y - k)² = r²
Ellipse
An Ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two
fixed points in the plane is a constant. The two fixed points are called the foci of the
ellipse. Also has the Major and Minor Axes -> The line segment passing through the
foci is the major axis, and the perpendicular line passing through the center is the
minor axis. The midpoint and endpoint of major axis are centre and vertices
respectively.
Standard equation of an ellipse with center (h, k), major radius (a), and minor radius
(b) is: (x - h)² / a² + (y - k)² / b² =1
Parabola
A parabola is defined as the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant to a
fixed point (focus) and a fixed line (directrix).
A line through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the
parabola.
The point of intersection of parabola with the axis is called the vertex of the
parabola.

The standard equation of a parabola with focus (a, 0) and directrix x = -a is: y² =
4ax
Hyperbola
A hyperbola is defined as the set of all points in a plane for which the difference
of distances to two fixed points (foci) is constant.
The term “difference” that is used in the definition means the distance to the
farther point minus the distance to the closer point. The two fixed points are
called the foci of the hyperbola. The mid-point of the line segment joining the
foci is called the centre of the hyperbola. The line through the foci is called the
transverse axis and the line through the centre and perpendicular to the
transverse axis is called the conjugate axis. The points at which the hyperbola
intersects the transverse axis are called the vertices of the hyperbola.

The standard equation of a hyperbola with center

(h, k), transverse axis length 2a, and conjugate
axis length 2b is: (x - h)² / a² - (y - k)² / b²= 1

We will delve deeper into the topics later on in the

presentation.
Degenerated Conic sections
Degenerated conic sections are special cases of the traditional conic sections—circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola—where the geometric shape
transforms into a simpler or more degenerate form due to specific conditions or parameter values. In these degenerate cases, the distinctive features of the
conic sections become minimized or collapse, leading to simplified geometric representations.
Types of Conic sections:
1.Degenerated Circles:
•A circle degenerates into a single point when its
radius approaches zero.
In this case, all points on the circle converge into
one central point,losing the circular shape.
2.Degenerated Ellipses:
•An ellipse degenerates into a line
segment when its major or minor axis shrinks to zero.
•This results in a straight line, essentially collapsing the
elliptical shape into a linear form.
3.Degenerated Parabolas:
•A parabola can degenerate into a single line in certain situations.
•This occurs when the focus and the directrix coincide,
causing the parabolic curve to straighten into a linear
segment.
4.Degenerated Hyperbolas:
•Hyperbolas can degenerate into a single line
or two coincident lines.
•This happens when the distance between the
foci is reduced , causing the hyperbolic curve
to transform into a linear or overlapped
configuration.
CIRCLE
Circle is defined as the locus of a point which moves in a plane such that its distance from a
fixed point in that plane is constant.
Radius of a Circle
The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the distance from the centre to a point on the
circle is called the radius of the circle (Fig 11.11).
Diameter of a Circle
The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords of a circle is called a diameter of
the circle.
(i)Diameter D=2×radius
(ii) The equation of the diameter bisecting parallel chords y = mx + c of the circle x 2 + y2 = a2 is x
+ my = 0.
(iii) The diameter corresponding to a system of parallel chords of a circle always passes through
the centre of the circle and is perpendicular to the parallel chords.
Standard Equation of a Circle
The equation of the circle is simplest if the centre of the
circle is at the origin. However, we derive below the
equation of the circle with
a given centre and radius(Fig 11.12).
Given C(h, k) be the centre and r the radius of circle.
Let P(x, y) be any point on the circle (Fig11.12). Then, by
the definition, | CP | = r . By the distance formula, we have
√(x-h)² - (y-k)²= r i.e. (x – h)² + (y – k)² = r²
This is the required equation of the circle with centre at (h , k) and radius r .
General Equation of a Circle
The general form of the equation of a circle is: x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. This general
form is used to find the coordinates of the centre of the circle and the radius, where
g, f, c are constants. Unlike the standard form which is easier to understand, the
general form of the equation of a circle makes it difficult to find any meaningful
properties about any given circle.

Equation of a Circle When the Centre is Origin

Consider an arbitrary point P(x, y) on the circle. Let ‘a’ be the radius
of the circle which is equal to OP.
We know that the distance between the point (x, y) and origin (0,0)
can be found using the distance formula which is equal to
√[x2+ y2]= a
Therefore, the equation of a circle, with the centre as the origin is,
x2+y2= a2
Where “a” is the radius of the circle.
Important Points to be Remembered
Let AS is a chord of contact of tangents
from C to the circle x2 + y2 = r2.
M is the mid-point of AB.
Parabola
A parabola is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line and a fixed point in the plane. The fixed line is called the directrix of
the parabola and the fixed points ‘F’ is called the ‘focus’. ‘Para’ means ‘for’ and ‘bola’ means ‘throwing’. A line through the focus and perpendicular to
the directrix is called the axis of the parabola. The point of intersection of parabola with the axis is called the vertex of the parabola. Thus, a parabola is
mathematically defined as follows:
1. "A locus of any point which is equidistant from a given point (focus) and a given line (directrix) is called a parabola."
2. Parabola is an important curve of the conic sections of the coordinate geometry.
Properties Of Parabola:
1.The important properties of the parabola are as follows.
2.The eccentricity of any parabola is 1.
3.The parabola is symmetric about its axis.
4.The axis is perpendicular to the directrix.
5.The axis passes through the vertex and the focus.
6.The tangent at vertex is parallel to the directrix.
7.The vertex is the mid-point of the focus and the mid-point of intersection of directrix and axis.
8.Tangents drawn to any point on the directrix are perpendicular.
Standard Equations of a Parabola:
There are four standard equations of a parabola.
y2 = 4ax
y2 = -4ax
x2 = 4ay
x2 = -4ay
The below image presents the four standard equations and forms of the parabola.

The four standard forms are based on the axis and the orientation of the parabola. The transverse axis and the conjugate
axis of each of these parabolas are different. The following are the observations made from the standard form of
equations:
Parabola is symmetric with respect to its axis. If the equation has the term with y 2, then the axis of symmetry is along the x-
axis and if the equation has the term with x2, then the axis of symmetry is along the y-axis.

When the axis of symmetry is along the x-axis, the parabola opens to the right if the coefficient of the x is positive and
opens to the left if the coefficient of x is negative.

When the axis of symmetry is along the y-axis, the parabola opens upwards if the coefficient of y is positive and opens
downwards if the coefficient of y is negative.
Terms Related to Parabola
The following terms are related to the parabola and help for a better understanding
of the concept of the parabola.
Axis: The straight line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the
directrix is designated as the axis of the conic section.
Vertex: The point of intersection of a conic section and its axis is called the vertex
of the conic section.
Focus: The point (a, 0) in the standard form image depicts the focus of the
parabola.
Directrix: The lines formed parallel to the y-axis/x-axis and crossing through the
point (-a, 0) or (0, a) or (a, 0) or (0, -a) is called the directrix of the parabola. The
directrix is perpendicular to the axis of the parabola.
Focal Chord: The focal chord of a parabola is the chord progression by the focus
of the parabola. The focal chord intersects the parabola at two distinct points.
Focal Distance: The distance of a point (x, y) on the parabola, from the focus, is
the focal distance. The focal distance is equivalent to the perpendicular length of
this point from the directrix.
Latus Rectum: Latus Rectum is the focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis of
the parabola and passes within the focus of the parabola.
Eccentricity: The fixed ratio of the distance of point lying on the conics from the
focus to its perpendicular distance from the directrix is termed the eccentricity of
a conic section and is indicated by e.
For a parabola, the value of eccentricity is e = 1
Latus Rectum of a Parabola
Latus Rectum is the focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis of the parabola and
passes within the focus of the parabola.

Length of the Latus Rectum

As shown in the above figure, LSL’ is the latus rectum of the parabola . By the symmetry
of the curve SL=SL’= G(say). So, the coordinates of L are (a,G).Since , L lies on Therefore,
i.e., G=2a
i.e., LL’=2G=4a so, Latus Rectum =4a.
The coordinates of L and L’, end points of latus rectum,are (a,2a) and (a,-2a) respectively.
> Properties of latus rectum of a parabola:
1.The latus rectum of parabola is called the shortest focal chord of a parabola.
2.Length of all the other focal chords will be greater than the length of a parabola.
3.The latus rectum is the only focal chord of the parabola which is perpendicular to the
axis of the parabola.
4.The endpoints of the latus rectum of the standard parabola are (a,2a) and (a,-2a)
respectively. Similarly for other patterns, the equation is mentioned in the below table.
5.If a and b are the lengths of the segments of any focal chords, then the length of the latus
rectum becomes .
Standard forms of Parabola:
1.Right-handed Parabola(or first Standard form):
Focus is (a,0)
Vertex is (0,0)
Equation of Directrix is x+a=0
Length of Latus Rectum is 4a
Equation of axis is y=0
Equation of latus rectum is x-a=0

2.Left-handed Parabola (or Second Standard form ):

Focus is (-a,0)
Vertex is (0,0)
Directrix is the line x-a=0
Axis is the line y=0
Length of the latus rectum is 4a
Latusrectum is x=-a
3.Upward Parabola (or Third Standard form):

Focus is (0,a)
Vertex is (0,0)
Directrix is the line y+a=0
Axis of the line x=0
Length of the latus rectum is 4a
Latus rectum is y-a=0

4.Downward Parabola (or Fourth Standard form):

Focus is (0,-a)
Vertex is (0,0)
Directrix is the line y-a=0
Axis is the line x=0
Length of latus rectum is 4a
Latus Rectum is y+a=0.

Length of latus rectum (summary):

Focus is (a,0)
Vertex is (0,0)
Directrix of the line x+a=0
Axis is the line y=0
Length of latus rectum is 4a
Latus rectum is x=a
Ellipse
In mathematics, an ellipse is a plane curve surrounding two focal points, such
that for all points on the curve, the sum of the two distances to the focal points
is a constant. It generalizes a circle, which is the special type of ellipse in which
the two focal points are the same. The elongation of an ellipse is measured by
its eccentricity a number ranging from e=0 (the limiting case of a circle) to e=1
(the limiting case of infinite elongation, no longer an ellipse but a parabola).
An ellipse has a simple algebraic solution for its area, but only approximations
for its perimeter (also known as circumference), for which integration is
required to obtain an exact solution.
Analytically, the equation of a standard ellipse centered at the origin with width
2a and height 2b is: x²/a²+y²/b²=1.
Assuming, a ≥ b the foci are(±c,0) for c=√a²+b².
The standard parametric equation is: (x , y)= (a cos (t),b sin(t)) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
The semi-major axis (major semi axis)
is the longest semi diameter or one half of the major axis, and thus runs from the centre, through a focus, and to
the perimeter. The semi-minor axis (minor semi axis) of an ellipse or hyperbola is a line segment that is at right
angles with the semi-major axis and has one end at the center of the conic section. For the special case of a
circle, the lengths of the semi-axes are both equal to the radius of the circle . The two fixed points are called the
foci (plural of ‘focus’) of the ellipse.

Relationship between semi-major axis, semi-minor axis and the distance of the focus from the centre of the
ellipse
Take a point P at one end of the major axis.
Sum of the distances of the point P to the foci is
F1 P + F2 P = F1 O + OP + F2 P (Since ,F1 P=F1 O+OP)
= c+a+a-c = 2a
Take a point Q at one end of the minor axis.
Sum of the distances from the point Q to the foci
is F1 Q + F2 Q = √b²+c² + √b²+c² = 2√b²+c²
Since both P and Q lies on the ellipse.
By definition of ellipse ,we have 2√b²+c² = 2a, i.e., a = √b²+c² Or a² = b²+c², i.e., c = √a²-b²
Eccentricity
The eccentricity of an ellipse is the ratio of the distances from the centreof the
ellipse to one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse (eccentricity is
denoted by e) i.e., e=c/a Then since the focus is at a distance of c from the
centre, in terms of the eccentricity the focus is at a distance of ae from the
centre.

Standard equations of an ellipse

The equation of an ellipse is simplest if the centre of the ellipse is at the origin
and the foci area (a)on the x-axis or y-axis. The two such possible orientations
are shown in Figure We will derive the equation for the ellipse shown above in
figure with foci on the x-axis.

Let F1 and F2 be the foci and O be the midpoint of the line segment F1 and F2 .
Let O be the origin andthe line from O through F2 be the positive x-axis and
tthat through F1 as the negative x-axis. Let, the line through perpendicular to
the x-axis be the y-axis. Let the coordinates of F1 be (– c, 0) and F2 be (c, 0) in
figure . Let P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse such that the sum of the distances
from P to the two foci be 2a so given PF1 + PF2 = 2a
Note : From the equation of the ellipse obtained above, it follows that for every
point P (x, y) on the ellipse, we have ,Therefore, the ellipse lies between the lines
x = – a and x = a and touches these lines. Similarly, the ellipse lies between the
lines y = – b and y = b and touches these lines.
Similarly, we can derive the equation of the ellipse in Fig
These two equations are known as standard equations of the ellipses.

Note : The standard equations of ellipses have centre at the origin and the major and
minor axis are coordinate axes. However, the study of the ellipses with centre at any
other point, and any line through the centre as major and the minor axes passing
through the centre and perpendicular to major axis are beyond the scope here.
From the standard equations of the ellipses (Fig11.26), we have the following
observations:
1. Ellipse is symmetric with respect to both the coordinate axes since if (x, y) is a
point on the ellipse, then (– x, y), (x, –y) and (– x, –y) are also points on the ellipse.
2. The foci always lie on the major axis. The major axis can be determined by finding
the intercepts on the axes of symmetry. That is, major axis is along the x-axis if the
coefficient of x2 has the larger denominator and it is along the y-axis if the
coefficient of y2 has the larger denominator.
Standard equation of an ellipse
There are two standard equations of the ellipse. These equations are based on the
transverse axis and the conjugate axis of each of the ellipse.
The standard equation of the ellipse is x²/a² + y²/b² =1 has the transverse axis as the
x-axis and the conjugate axis as the y-axis.
Another ellipse standard form is x²/b² + y²/a² =1 and it has the transverse axis as the
y-axis and its conjugate axis as the x-axis.

Observations from standard equation:

1. Ellipse is symmetric with respect to both the coordinate axes since if (x, y) is a
point on the ellipse, then (– x, y), (x, –y) and (– x, –y) are also points on the ellipse.

2. The foci always lie on the major axis. The major axis can be determined by finding
the intercepts on the axes of symmetry. That is, major axis is along the x-axis
if the coefficient of x² has the larger denominator and it is along the y-axis if the
coefficient of y² has the larger denominator.
Note:
The standard equations of ellipses have centre at the origin and the
major and minor axis are coordinate axes. However, the study of the ellipses with centre at any other
point, and any line through the centre as major and the minor axes passing through the centre and
perpendicular to major axis are beyond the
scope here.
Latus Rectum Of Ellipse
Latus rectum of ellipse is a straight line passing through the foci of ellipse and perpendicular to the
major axis of ellipse. Latus rectum is the focal chord, which is parallel to the directrix of the ellipse. The
ellipse has two foci and hence it has two latus rectums.
The length of latus rectum of ellipse x2/a2 + y2/b2= 1, is 2b2/a.
Each of the latus rectum cuts the ellipse at two distinct points. Let us learn more about the properties of
latus rectum of ellipse, with the help of examples, and FAQs.
What Is Latus Rectum Of Ellipse?
The latus rectum of an ellipse is a line passing through the foci of the ellipse and is drawn perpendicular
to the transverse axis of the ellipse. The latus rectum of an ellipse is also the focal chord which is
parallel to the directrix of the ellipse. The ellipse has two foci and hence the ellipse has two latus
rectums. The length of the latus rectum of the ellipse having the standard equation of x2/a2 + y2/b2= 1, is
2b2/a.
The endpoints of the latus rectum of the ellipse passing through the focus (ae, 0), is (ae, b2/a), and
(ae, -b2/a). And the endpoints of the latus rectum of the ellipse passing through the foci (-ae, 0), is (-
ae, b2/a), and (-ae, -b2/a). Here 'e' is the eccentricity of the ellipse and its value lies between 0 and 1,
(0 < e < 1). The endpoints of the latus rectum of the ellipse and the focus of the ellipse are collinear,
and the distance between the endpoints of the latus rectum gives the length of the latus rectum.
Properties Of Latus Rectum of Ellipse
The important properties of the latus rectum of the ellipse are as follows.
The latus rectum is perpendicular to the major axis of the ellipse.
The latus rectum of the ellipse passes through the focus of the ellipse.
There are two latus rectums for an ellipse.
Each latus rectum cuts the ellipse at two distinct points.
The latus rectum is parallel to the directrix of the ellipse.

Terms Related to Latus Rectum of Ellipse

The following terms are related to the latus rectum of the ellipse and help for a better
understanding of the concept of the latus rectum of the ellipse.
Foci of Ellipse: The focus of the ellipse lies on the major axis of the ellipse. The
ellipse x2a2+y2b2=1 has two foci and their coordinates is (+ae, 0), and (-ae, 0). The
midpoint of the foci of the ellipse is the center of the ellipse.
Focal Chord: The line passing through the focus of the ellipse is the focal chord of the
ellipse. The ellipse has an infinite number of focal chords passing through the focus.
The focal chord perpendicular to the axis of the ellipse is called the latus rectum of the
ellipse.
Directrix: Directrix is a line that is drawn outside the ellipse and is perpendicular to the
major axis of the ellipse. Directrix is useful to give the definition of an ellipse. The
ellipse is the locus of a point such that the ratio of its distances from the focus and the
directrix is less than 1.
Vertex of Ellipse: A vertex of an ellipse is the point of intersection of the ellipse with
its axis of symmetry. The ellipse intersects its axis of symmetry at two distinct points,
and hence an ellipse has two vertices. The vertex of an ellipse is also the point of
intersection of the line which is passing through the foci of the ellipse and is cutting
the ellipse at two distinct points.
Major Axis of Ellipse: The major axis of the ellipse is a line that cuts the
ellipse into two equal halves. The major axis is a line passing through the
foci and the center of the ellipse. For an ellipse x2a2+y2b2=1, the endpoints
of the major axis are (a, 0), (-a, 0), and the length of the major axis is 2a
units.
Minor Axis of Ellipse: The minor axis of the ellipse x2a2+y2b2=1, is the axis
that is perpendicular to its major axis. The endpoints of the minor axis of
the ellipse is (0, b), (0, -b), and the length of the minor axis is 2b units. The
minor axis also passes through the center of the ellipse.
Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the locus of all those points in a plane
such that the difference in their distances from two
fixed points in the plane is a constant.
> The term “difference” that is used in the definition means the distance to the farther point minus the distance to the closer point.
> The two fixed points are called the foci of the hyperbola.
>The mid-point of the line segment joining the foci is called the centre of the hyperbola.
>The line through the foci is called the transverse axis and the line through the centre and perpendicular to the transverse axis is called the conjugate
axis.
>The points at which the hyperbola intersects the transverse axis are called the vertices of the hyperbola.
General Equation of hyperbola:
x0 and y0 are the center points, a is a semi-major axis and b is a semi-minor axis.
The distance between the two foci will always be 2c
The distance between two vertices will always be 2a.
This is also the length of the transverse axis.
The length of the conjugate axis will be 2b.
Here, b =
 Eccentricity of hyperbola:

The ratio c/a is always constant, called the eccentricity of the hyperbola and is
denoted by e.
The value of e is always greater than or equal to 1.
If e = 1, the hyperbola is said to be "standard" or "equilateral," meaning it is a
right-angled hyperbola.
If e > 1, the hyperbola is stretched more, and as e approaches infinity, the
hyperbola becomes more and more elongated.
In the case of hyperbola, eccentricity is also related to the foci and the
distance between them. The distance between the foci is given by 2ae, where a
is the distance from the center to the vertices along the major axis and e is the
eccentricity.

Standard Equation Of Hyperbola

The standard equation of the hyperbola is [(x2/a2) – (y2/b2)] = 1, where the X-
axis is the transverse axis and the Y-axis is the conjugate axis. Furthermore,
another standard equation of the hyperbola is [(y2/a2)- (x2/b2)] = 1, where the
Y-axis is the transverse axis and the x-axis is the conjugate axis.
Latus Rectum:
In the context of conic sections, the term "latus rectum" refers to a specific line
segment associated with a conic section, such as a parabola. For a parabola, the
latus rectum is a line segment that passes through the focus of the parabola and is
perpendicular to the axis of symmetry.
Equation of a Parabola:
The general equation for a parabola is y=ax2+bx+c (for a vertical parabola) or
x=ay2+by+c (for a horizontal parabola).
The standard form for a parabola is y=4ax (for a vertical parabola) or x=4ay (for a
horizontal parabola), where a is a constant.
Focal Length:
The focal length (f) of a parabola is the distance from the vertex to the
focus.
Latus Rectum Formula:
The length of the latus rectum (LR) is given by 4f or 1/a (where a is the
coefficient of x2 or y2 in the parabola's equation).
>For a vertical parabola:
LR=4f=1/a​
>For a horizontal parabola:
LR=4f=1/a​
Properties:
The latus rectum is always perpendicular to the axis of symmetry of the
parabola.
It passes through the focus of the parabola.
For any point on the parabola, the distance from the point to the focus is equal to
half the length of the latus rectum.
Graphical Representation:
On the graph of a parabola, the latus rectum is the chord passing through the
focus and perpendicular to the axis.
Example- Find the coordinates of the focus, axis, the equation of the directrix
and latus rectum of the parabola y2 = 8x.
Solution- The given equation involves y2 , so the axis of symmetry is along the x-
axis. The coefficient of x is positive so the parabola opens to the right.
Comparing with the given
equation y2 = 4ax, we find that a = 2.
Thus, the focus of the parabola is (2, 0)
and the equation of the directrix of the
parabola is x = – 2 Length of the latus
rectum is 4a = 4 × 2 = 8.
Conclusion
Here the following concepts and generalisations are studied.
>A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point in the plane.
>The equation of a circle with a centre (h,k) and a radius r is ( x - h)² + (y - k)² = r²
A parabola is the set of all point in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line and a fixed
point in plane .
>The equation of the parabola with the focus (a,0) a>0 and directrix x=a is y² = 4ax
>Latus rectum of a parabola is a line segment perpendicular to the axis of the parabola
through the focus and whose end point lie on the parabola.
>Length of the latus rectum of the parabola y²= 4ax is 4a.
>An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distance from two fixed
point in a plane is a constant .
>The equation of an ellipse with foci on the x- axis is x²/a² + y²/b² = 1 is 2b²/a.
>The eccentricity of an ellipse is the ratio between the distance from the centre of the ellipse
to the one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse
>A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances from the two
fixed points in the plane is a constant.
>The equation of a hyperbola with foci on the x-axis is : x²/a² - y²/b² = 1.
>Latus rectum of hyperbola is line segment perpendicular to the transverse axis through any
of the foci and whose end points lie on the hyperbola .
>Length of the latus rectum of the hyperbola :
x²/a² - y²/b² = 1 is 2b²/a.
>The eccentricity of a hyperbola is the ratio of the distance from the centre of the hyperbola to
one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the hyperbola.
.