UNIT 3

BASIC CONCEPTS
AND THEORIES OF
LEARNING
•Meaning and
Concepts of
Learning

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 3.1. Meaning and Concepts of Learning
Leaning can be defined as any relatively permanent
change in behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills,
which comes about through experiences (Lahey,
2004).
The above definition of learning has three important
elements.
1. Learning is a change in behavior for better or worse.
2. It is a change that takes place through practice or
experience. The changes due to growth and
maturation, are not to be considered as learning.
3. Before a change can be regarded as learning, it must
be relatively permanent. Therefore, changes due to
injury, fatigue, adaptation or sensitivity of the
organism are not considered as learning.
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3.2. Main Characteristics of Learning
1. Learning is growth. A child grows both mentally and
physically through his/her daily activities. Therefore, we
can say that learning is growth through experience.
2. Learning is adjustment. Learning helps an individual to
adjust himself/herself to the new situations.
3. Learning is organizing experience. Learning is not
merely addition to knowledge. It is the reorganization of
experience.
4. Learning is purposeful. All true learning is based on
purpose. We don’t learn anything and everything that
comes in our way in a haphazard/sudden manner.
5. Learning is intelligent. Meaningless efforts do not
produce permanent result. Only efforts made
intelligently have lasting effects.
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6. Learning is active. Learning does not take
place without a purpose and self activity.
• The principle of learning by doing is the main
principle which has been recommended by all
modern educationalists.
7. Learning is both individual and social. It is an
individual and social activity.
8. Learning is the product of environment.
Environment plays an important role in the
growth and development of the individual.
9. True learning affects the conduct of the
learner. There is a change in the mental
structure of the learner after every experience.
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3.3. Factors Affecting Learning
Some of the major factors which affect the students
learning are the following.
1. The need of the learner
- the interest, attitude and motivation of the learner

2. Readiness
-Physical and mental maturity
3. Situations
-school environment, home environment, social
environment, human and material resources.
4. Interaction
- between the learner and situations
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3.4. Theories of Learning
• There are three broad classification of learning theories. These are behavioural
learning theory, cognitive learning theory and social learning theory.
A. Behavioral Theories
• Behaviourism, as learning theory, is more interested in how behaviour changes as a
result of a person’s experiences.
• The best way to understand learning is to examine the environment.
• All learning can be understood in terms of two kinds of simple association: classical
conditioning and operant conditioning.
• I. Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning
• The concept of classical conditioning was founded by a Russian physiologist, Ivan
Pavlov.
• Classical conditioning emphasized on the learning of involuntary emotional or
physiological response such as fear, salivation or sweating.
• Classical conditioning occurs when a person form mental association between two
stimuli.
• He studied the process of salivary secretion in dog.
• Pavlov identified three steps in the process of salivary conditioning which can be
summarized as follows.
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 Before conditioning
• Bell (Neutral stimulus) or NS No salivation.
• Food (natural stimulus) or UCS salivation (UCR).
During conditioning
• Bell (NS) + food (UCS) salivation (UCR).
After conditioning
• Bell (CS) salivation (CR).

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 E.g. we can take white rat (CS), Loud noise (UCS)
and fear of the child.
- White rat(NS) leads to No response.
- Loud sound elicit UCR (fear)
-White rat + loud noise with several pairings fear
White rat (CS) elicit fear (CR)

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Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
1. Acquisition: The acquisition phases are the initial
learning of the conditioned response.
• it refers to initial learning of the CS gain power over the
UCS to produce conditioning.
• The order and time interval between the CS and the
UCS affect the speed of acquisition of the conditioned
response.
• The following conditionings are identified based on the
time interval and order of CS and UCS.
a. Delayed conditioning;- refers to presenting the CS first
and letting to remain at least until the onset of the UCS.
It produces strong conditioning.
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b. Trace conditioning:- refers to presenting the conditioned
stimulus first and ending before the onset of the UCS. It
produces moderately strong conditioning.
c. Simultaneous conditioning:- refers to beginning and ending
of the CS and the UCS together. It produces weak
conditioning.
d. Backward conditioning:- is a conditioning in which the onset
of the UCS precedes the onset of the CS. It is mostly
unsuccessful principle.
2. Extinction:- refers to the decline of CR in absence of UCS. It
is actually inhibition of the CR rather than elimination of it.
• In Pavlov classical conditioning, if the conditioned stimulus
(the bell) is repeatedly presented without being followed by
the unconditioned stimulus (the food) for a number of trials,
the conditioned response was found to “weaken” gradually
and get “extinguished”.
• “Extinction is a process of learning to inhibit the response
acquired in conditioning”
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3. Spontaneous Recovery:- refers to the reappearance of CR
after a rest pause.
• When the dog is brought out of the experimental set-up and
again put in the set – up after a lapse of time, the dog
responds to conditioned stimulus (CS).
• This process explains that there is no complete extinction due
to time interval but there is inhibition of CR.
4. Stimulus Generalization:- refers to the tendency to react or
respond to stimuli that are different from but some what
similar to a conditioned stimulus.
• After the dog salivate in response to hearing one particular
sound, it would also salivate after hearing other similar
sound.
5. Stimulus Discrimination:- refers to the learning ability to
distinguish between CS and other similar but irrelevant
stimuli that do not signal conditioned stimulus.
It is responding to CS but not to other similar stimuli.
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II. Operant (instrumental) Conditioning Theory of Learning
• The concept of operant conditioning was developed by an
American psychologist, B. F. Skinner.
• The term operant conditioning refers to the fact that the
learner must operate, or perform a certain behavior,
before receiving a reward or punishment.
• He suggested that most behaviour is emitted or voluntarily
enacted.
• Operant conditioning refers to a process by which the
consequence of a deliberate behaviour influence the
chances of the behaviour happening again in the future.
• E.g. A student often works longer or more frequently at
assignments if doing so earns praise or good grades.
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 Operations in Operant Conditioning
• Some of the important operations, which are
involved in the process of operant
conditioning are:
• Shaping
• Extinction
• Reinforcement
• Punishment

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• Shaping:- refers to the judicious/careful use of selective reinforcement to
bring certain desirable changes in the behavior of the organism.
• or it is the process of reinforcing each small step of progress toward a
desired goal.
• Extinction:- consists of simply withholding the reinforcement when the
appropriate response occurs.
• Reinforcement: - is a stimulus that follows a behavior which increases the
likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
• It is a stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the probability of
the occurrence of a response.
• Two types of reinforcement
a. Positive reinforcement:- is a stimulus which when applied following an
operant response strengthens the probability of that response.
It occurs when presenting positive value stimulus strengthens the
probability of the occurrence of a response (eg. Water, food, praise).
b. Negative reinforcement:- is any stimulus which when removed
following an operant response, strengthens the probability of that
response.
• is any stimulus the removal or withdrawal of which strength the
probability of the occurrence of a response (E.g. Reducing Loud
noise/pain, bright light, electric shock failure, rejection, criticism).
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 Reinforcers are also classified as primary and
secondary reinforcers.
 Primary reinforcers: are those that have natural
power to reinforce or encourage a behaviour,
which precedes them. E.g. food, water, affection,
shocks termination, or pain reduction.
 They are innate and they satisfy basic needs
without having to be learned.
 secondary reinforcers: are stimuli which are
learned/ conditioned and include money, status
and praise.
Schedules of Reinforcement
• A schedule of reinforcement refers to when and
how a response is reinforced.
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 Continuous Schedule:- refers to an
arrangement of providing reinforcement after
every correct response.
 Partial or Intermittent Schedule:- refers to an
arrangement of providing sometimes
reinforcement and withholding the
reinforcement during other times.
 Partial reinforcement is divided in to two
categories:-
• Ratio Schedule
• Interval Schedule

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I. Ratio Schedule:- refers to arrangement of
giving reinforcement after a response.
a. Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR):- is concerned with
administering of reinforcement after a fixed number
of correct responses.
Example:- A man is paid after completing a certain
amount of work.
b. Variable Ratio Schedule (VR):- refers to providing
of reinforcement after a variable number of non-
reinforced responses. Example:- Gambling games

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 II. Interval Schedule:- is concerned with
arrangement of providing reinforcement
after an interval time.
a.Fixed Interval Schedule (FI):- refers to providing
reinforcement after a fixed interval of time,
regardless of the number of responses made.
Example:
– Payment of salary on 1st of every month.
–Administration of quiz on every Monday of the class.

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 b. Variable Interval Schedule (VI):-is concerned
with administering reinforcement after variable
time of non-reinforced response based on an
average time-period between reinforcements
during the entire schedule.
Example: Fishing & Dialing a phone
• Punishment:- is a stimulus that follows a
behavior and decrease the likelihood that the
behavior will be repeated.
• It is the delivery of undesirable, unpleasant, or
aversive stimulus following a response.
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B. Cognitive Theories of Learning
Cognition involves all the mental activities associated with
thinking, and knowing, activities, which include perception and
memory.
The emphasis on cognitive theory of learning is on the
acquisition of information and the ways of dealing with
information. i.e.
Some psychologists view learning in terms of the thought
processes, or cognitions, that underlie it—an approach known
as cognitive learning theory.
Cognitive theorists explain that, the way we think, our
knowledge, expectations, feelings and interaction with others
influence how and what we learn.
Developed approaches that focus on the unseen mental
processes that occur during learning, rather than concentrating
solely on external stimuli, responses, and reinforcements.
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 Common types of cognitive learning are
I. Latent Learning (Edward Tolman)
• It is a hidden form of learning. refers to learning that
occurs but is not evident in behavior until later, when
conditions are favorable for its appearance or until
reinforcement is provided for displays it.
•In latent learning, a new behavior is learned but not
demonstrated until some incentive is provided for
displaying it.
•In short, latent learning occurs without reinforcement.
•Evidence for the importance of cognitive processes
comes from a series of animal experiments that revealed
a type of cognitive learning called latent learning.
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• E.g. A child may learn nagging behavior from
his parents while he was a baby. However,
most probably, he will manifest this character
after he has been engaged with marriage (i.e.
while he reaches in his adolescence/
adulthood stage). Until that, he was
processing it in his mind.

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• Cognitive maps: refer to the formation of internal
mental representation of the environment as a result
of the person or animal experience with the
respective social or physical environment.
•It is mental representation of spatial locations and
directions.
•Cognitive maps of surroundings, primarily based on
particular landmarks are developed by people too.
•In their initial encounter with a new environment, they
develop cognitive maps based upon specific paths.
•As the familiarity with the environment increase,
“abstract cognitive maps” are developed i.e., overall
conception of environment is developed.

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 Insight Learning – (Wolfgang Kohler)
• it refers to a sudden change in our perception that
comes while encounter and struggle with life
challenging problem.
• Sometimes, when we face a problem in our day-
today life, the solution may come to us all of a
sudden.
• This quick change in our perception is
known as Insight.
• While an individual develops insight he/she will
have an ‘Aha’ experience (an existing feeling as a
result of solving the problem).
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• For example, what is the next
number?
149162536496481100121…

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• For example, what is the next number?
149162536496481100121…
• Usually people make several trial and error strategies before they
suddenly observe and say “Aha! It is the square of the series
numbers 1 though 11; and the next number will be 12.”
• Insight Learning – learning to solve a problem by understanding
various parts of the problem
• Wolfgang Kohler studied insight learning in chimpanzees
– Kohler placed chimpanzees in certain situations and watched
them solve the problems
• Ex. Hanging a banana out of the chimpanzee’s reach
– Solution: Monkeys stacked boxes on top of one another
to get to the banana
– Kohler believed that the monkeys could not have come
to the solution without a cognitive understanding of
how to solve the problem.
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III. Information Processing Model (IPM):
•Information processing theorists proposed that
like a computer, a human mind is a system that
processes information through the application of
logical rules and strategies.
•It proposed that human memory involves a
sequence of three stages, which are sensory
memory, short-term memory and long-term
memory.

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a) Sensory Memory
The first stage is sensory memory, which contains
receptors that briefly hold information that enters
through our senses.
Sensory memory is affiliated with the transudation
of energy (change from one form of energy to
another).
The body has special sensory receptor cells that
transduce this external energy to something the
brain can understand. In the process of transduction,
a memory is created.
This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for
vision; about 3 seconds for hearing).
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b) Short-Term Memory
The second stage is short-term memory, a temporary
storage facility. Short-term memory is also called
working memory and relates to what we are thinking
about at any given moment in time.
It is created by our paying attention to an external
stimulus, an internal thought, or both.
c) Long-Term Memory
The third stage is long-term memory (LTM). LTM
provides the lasting retention of information, from
minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory appears to
have an almost limitless capacity to retain
information. 31
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C. Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation
According to psychologist Albert Bandura and colleagues, a major
part of human learning consists of observational learning, which is
learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model.
Because of its reliance on observation of others—a social
phenomenon—the perspective taken by Bandura is often referred
to as a social cognitive approach to learning/social learning theory.
• Observational learning can take place through vicarious
reinforcement. This takes place when we see others being
rewarded or punished for particular action and modify our
behaviour as it we had received the consequence our selves.
• In the 2nd type of observational learning we observe and imitate
the behaviour of a model with no reinforcement and punishment
received by the model. The model show something the observer
wants to learn. Imitation also can take place when the observer
wants to become more like an admired or high status model. 33
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• for example children imitate and behave like a film actor who
has the skill to show certain actions.
• In one experiment, children who were afraid of dogs were
exposed to a model— dubbed the Fearless Peer—playing with a
dog. After exposure, observers were considerably more likely to
approach a strange dog than were children who had not viewed
the Fearless Peer.
• Observational learning is particularly important in acquiring skills
in which the operant conditioning technique of shaping is
inappropriate.
• Piloting an airplane and performing brain surgery, for example,
are behaviors that could hardly be learned by using trial-and-
error methods without grave cost—literally—to those involved in
the learning process.
• Observational learning may have a genetic basis. For example, we
find observational learning at work with mother, animals teaching
their young such activities as hunting.
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Not all behavior that we witness is learned or carried out, of course.
One crucial factor that determines whether we later imitate a
model is whether the model is rewarded for his or her behavior.
If we observe a friend being rewarded for putting more time into his
studies by receiving higher grades, we are more likely to imitate
his behavior than we would if his behavior resulted only in being
stressed and tired. Models who are rewarded for behaving in a
particular way are more apt to be mimicked than are models who
receive punishment.
Elements (Phases) of observational learning
• Bandura notes that there are four important elements to be
considered in observational learning. They are Attention (paying
attention), Retention (retaining information or impressions),
Production (producing behaviors), and Motivation (being
motivated to repeat the behaviors).
• Step1  step 2  step 3  step 4
paying attention remember reproduction motivation
(retention) 35
3.5. Learning in School Setting: Aids, Gains and
Losses
•In this topic, you have to revisit and sharpen your
understanding about learning.
•The aim is to make you improve your competencies in
motivating your students, helping them to improve their
memory and making them able to learn better in different
situations.
Behaviorism in the classroom
Applying Classical Conditioning in the Classroom

The key element in classical conditioning is association.

Therefore, teachers are encouraged to associate variety of
positive and pleasant events with learning and classroom
activities. For example, a teacher may: 36
• Use attractive learning aids.
• Decorate the classrooms.
• Encourage students to work in small groups for difficult
learning tasks.
• Make the students understand the rules of the classrooms.
• Give ample time for students to prepare for and complete
the learning tasks.
• Associate positive, pleasant events with learning tasks.
• Provide students with practice in potentially anxiety-
inducing situations.
• Inform the students clearly and specifically the format of
quizzes, tests, and examinations.
• Provide a safe and warm classroom environment (be
sympathetic & friendly) so that the classroom will be
associated with the positive emotions.
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Applying Operant Conditioning in the Classroom
•In operant conditioning, the consequences of
behaviour produce changes in the probability that the
behaviour will occur.
•Reinforcement and punishment are the 2 main
concepts in operant conditioning.
•The following are some examples on how operant
conditioning can be applied in the classrooms:
• Provide cues for appropriate behavior.
• Use appropriate schedules of reinforcement.
• Carefully select reinforcers for their potency.
• Provide clear, informative feedback on students'
work. 38
• Use reinforcement rather than punishment
whenever possible.
• Don't use physical punishment.
• Don't punish people; punish specific behaviors.
• Tell the students which behavior is being punished.
• Reinforce good behaviors and punish bad ones
consistently.
• The closer the punishment is in time and place to the
behavior being punished, the more effective it will be.
• Use various types of reinforcement such as teacher
approval (praise, smiles, attention, and pats on the
shoulder), concrete reinforcement (cookies, candies,
and stationeries) and privileges (longer recess time
and more time with friends).
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Applying the Social Learning Theory in the Classroom
The social learning theory focuses on how people learn by
observing and imitating others. To motivate learning using
this approach, a teacher may:
• Demonstrate and teach good behaviors.
• Promote self-regulation in your students.
• Use high-achieving and successful peers as models.
• Prepare the class to pay attention by using different
attention getting strategies.
• Use vicarious reinforcement, that is, make sure students
see that positive behaviors will lead to positive
consequences.
• Display emotional control, respect for others, good
listening, etc. Teachers who model such characteristics
tend to induce those same qualities in students.
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Cognitive Theory in the Classroom
Applying the Information ProcessingTheory in the
Classroom
Memory is crucial in learning process according to
Information Processing Theory of Learning. Teacher can use
following strategies to help students lessen forgetting and
improve memory.
• Activate prior knowledge and make connection with
new knowledge to enhance student’s learning. For
example, when teaching adverbs, you might say that
adverbs are similar to adjectives except that they
describe verbs instead of nouns.
• Engage multiple processes such as visual learning
and verbal learning.
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• Use instructional strategies that actively involve students
such as group discussion, singing and reading aloud,
cooperative learning, inquiry, discovery, experimenting or
leaning by doing.
• Present information in ways that will capture students’
attention so that they are likely to remember. But what
attention getting strategies are there?
 Inform students of the learning objectives of the lesson;
 Make modifications in physical environment to reduce
distractions;
 Use visual cues such as arrows, underline;
 Direction through verbal signals (E.g. “This is very
important!”);
 Tone and pitch of voice can also be changed to avoid
monotony;
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• Keep descriptions short and slow enough to prevent
overloading students’ working memory. Proceed
more
slowly with young and less capable students.
• Pay attention to meaningfulness and organization of
subject-matter. A material is meaningful when the:
 material is well–organized in increasing difficulty
order;
 details are placed in logically organized system;
 material is adjusted to the learners attitude &
experiences;
 objectives and the material conforms to learners
level of development.

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• Student may use two types of rehearsal:
Maintenance rehearsal is rote repetition of the
information in STM, like repeating phone number a
few dozen times.
Elaborative rehearsal occurs when the information is
expanded, embellished on, and related to other
concepts already in LTM.
• Use mnemonic devices such as acronyms whilst
teaching important facts. Examples: SMS for short
messages service or “EmakSuka Pizza” for types of
memory in long term memory that is Episodic,
Semantic, and Procedural.
• Students may use memory device such as mind mapping,
graphic organizer, tree diagram, etc to enhance their
understanding
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and good memory. 44