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16 views24 pages

2 Relational Model Part 1of3

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co22352
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Relational Model

Example of a Relation

attributes
(or columns)

tuples
(or rows)
Attribute Types
 The set of allowed values for each
attribute is called the domain of the
attribute
 Attribute values are (normally)
required to be atomic; that is,
indivisible
 The special value null is a member of
every domain. Indicated that the value
is “unknown”
 The null value causes complications
in the definition of many operations
Relation Schema and Instance
 A1, A2, …, An are attributes

 R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schema


Example:
instructor = (ID, name, dept_name, salary)
 Formally, given sets D1, D2, …. Dn a relation r is a subset of

D1 x D2 x … x Dn
 Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a , a , …, an) where
The current values (relation instance)1 of2a relation are
each ai  by
specified Di a table
 An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a
table
Relations are Unordered

 Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an


arbitrary order)
 Example: instructor relation with unordered tuples
Keys
 Let K  R
 K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify
a unique tuple of each possible relation r(R)
 Example: {ID} and {ID,name} are both superkeys of
instructor.
 Superkey K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {ID} is a candidate key for Instructor
 One of the candidate keys is selected to be the primary
key.
 which one? Depending on the query
 Foreign key constraint: Value in one relation must appear
in another
 Example – dept_name in instructor is a foreign key from
instructor referencing department
Schema Diagram for University
Database
Relational Query Languages

 Relational algebra
 Tuple relational calculus
 Domain relational calculus
The above 3 pure languages are equivalent
in computing power
Relational Algebra Procedural language
Six basic operators

1.select: σ

2.project: ∏

3.union: ∪

4.set difference: –

5.Cartesian product: x

6.rename: ρ
 Additional Operations

We define additional operations that do not add any power to


the relational algebra, but that simplify common queries.

1. Set intersection
2. Natural join
3. Division
4. Assignment

 Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations

1. Generalized Project

2. Aggregate Functions

3. Outer Join
Select Operation – selection of rows
(tuples)
 Relation r

A=B ^ D > 5 (r)


Project Operation – selection of columns
(Attributes)

 Relation r:

 A,C (r)
Union of two relations
 Relations r, s:

 r  s:
Set difference of two relations
 Relations r, s:

 r – s:
Set intersection of two relations

 Relation r, s:

 rs

Note: r  s = r – (r – s)
joining two relations -- Cartesian-
product
 Relations r, s:

 r x s:
Cartesian-product – naming issue
 Relations r, s: B

 r x s: r.B s.B
Renaming a Table
 Allows us to refer to a relation, (say E) by more than one name.
 x (E)

returns the expression E under the name X

 Relations r

 r x  s (r) r.A r.B s.A s.B


α 1 α 1
α 1 β 2
β 2 α 1
β 2 β 2
Composition of Operations
 Can build expressions using multiple operations
 Example: A=C (r x s)

 rxs

 A=C (r x s)
Joining two relations – Natural
Join
 Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S
respectively.
Then, the “natural join” of relations R and S is a
relation on schema R  S obtained as follows:
 Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts
from s.
 If tr and ts have the same value on each of the
attributes in R  S, add a tuple t to the result,
where
 t has the same value as tr on r

 t has the same value as ts on s


Natural Join Example
 Relations r, s:

 Natural Join
 r s

 A, r.B, C, r.D, E ( r.B = s.B ˄ r.D = s.D (r x


s)))
Notes about Relational Languages

 Each Query input is a table (or set of tables)


 Each query output is a table.
 All data in the output table appears in one of the input
tables
Summary of Relational Algebra
Operators
Symbol (Name) Example of Use
σ
(Selection) σ
salary > = 85000 (instructor)
Return rows of the input relation that satisfy the predicate.
Π
(Projection) Π
ID, salary (instructor)
Output specified attributes from all rows of the input relation. Remove
duplicate tuples from the output.
x
(Cartesian Product) instructor x department
Output pairs of rows from the two input relations that have the same value on
all attributes that have the same name.
∪
(Union) Π
name (instructor) ∪ Π
name (student)
Output the union of tuples from the two input relations.
-
(Set Difference) Π
name (instructor) -- Π
name (student)
Output the set difference of tuples from the two input relations.
⋈
(Natural Join) instructor ⋈ department
Output pairs of rows from the two input relations that have the same value on
all attributes that have the same name.
Thank You

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