Chapter 11: Metal Alloys

Applications and Processing

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are metal alloys classified and how are they used?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques?
• How do properties vary throughout a piece of material
that has been quenched, for example?
• How can properties be modified by post heat treatment?

Chapter 11 - 1
 Taxonomy of Metals
Metal Alloys

Ferrous Nonferrous

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C

T(°C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite
 cementite
1400 L
+L
1200  1148°C L+Fe3C
austenite Eutectic:
1000 4.30

+Fe3C
+

800 727°C Fe3C



ferrite Eutectoid: cementite

600 0.76 +Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C Chapter 11 - 2
Ferrous alloy: iron is the prime constituent

• Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:

1.iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within

the earth’s crust;
2. metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively
economical extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication
techniques;
3. ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, they have a wide range of
mechanical and physical properties

• Disadvantage: their susceptibility to corrosion

Chapter 11 - 3
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 310
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Chapter 11 - 4
 Plain carbon steels: contain only residual concentrations of
impurities other than carbon and a little manganese.
Alloy steels: more alloying elements are intentionally added in
specific concentrations ( Si, Cu, Al, V, Ni)

Low Alloy
Low carbon steel (<0.25 wt% C):

• unresponsive to heat treatments

• strengthening is accomplished by cold work
• microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents
• are relatively soft and weak
• have outstanding ductility and toughness
• they are machinable, weldable, and, of all steels, are the
least expensive to produce Chapter 11 - 5
Medium carbon steel (0.25-0.6 wt% C):
• may be heat treated by austenitizing, quenching, and then
tempering to improve their mechanical properties
• having microstructures of tempered martensite.
• have low hardenabilities
• additions of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improve the
capacity of these alloys to be heat treated
• stronger than the low-carbon steels, but at a sacrifice of ductility

and toughness
High carbon steel (0.6-1.4 wt% C):
• are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon
steels.
• usually containing chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and
molybdenum.

Chapter 11 - 6
 Stainless Steels
•are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments
• their predominant alloying element is chromium; a concentration of at
least 11 wt% Cr is required.
• corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum

additions
• are divided into three classes—martensitic, ferritic, or austenitic
• a wide range of mechanical properties
• martensitic stainless steels are capable of being heat treated
• used at elevated temperatures and in severe environments because they
resist oxidation and maintain their mechanical integrity under such
conditions
• Equipment employing these steels includes gas turbines, high-
temperature steam boilers, heat-treating furnaces, aircraft, missiles, and
Chapter 11 - 7
 Refinement of Steel from Ore
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2  CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C  2CO
and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe +3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3  CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3  slag

Chapter 11 - 8
 Ferrous Alloys
Iron containing – Steels - cast irons

Nomenclature AISI & SAE

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (10 ~ 20%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.4 - 0.90%), Mo (0.2 - 0.3%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)

where xx is wt% C x 100

example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
Stainless Steel -- >11% Cr

(SAE)The Society of Automotive Engineers

(AISI)The American Iron and Steel Institute
(ASTM)The American Society for Testing and Materials
(UNS) unified numbering system Chapter 11 - 9
 Cast Iron
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
• low melting (also brittle) so easiest to cast

• Cementite (Fe3C ) is a metastable compound, and

under some circumstances it can be dissociate or
decomposes to form
ferrite + graphite
Fe3C  3 Fe () + C (graphite)

– generally a slow process

Chapter 11 - 10
 Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
T(°C)
1600
Graphite formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by
 +L Graphite
• Si > 1 wt% 1200  1153°C
Austenite 4.2 wt% C
• slow cooling during
1000
solidification
  + Graphite
800
740°C
•Graphite is the carbon 0.65
600
rich phase instead of  + Graphite
cementite at 6.7 wt % C 400
0 1 2 3 4 90 100
• for most cast iron the (Fe) Co , wt% C
carbon exists as graphite
Chapter 11 - 11
 Types of Cast Iron
Gray iron
• 2.5-4 wt% C, 1-3 wt% Si
• graphite flakes(on ferrite matrix)
• weak & brittle under tension
• stronger under compression
• excellent vibration dampening
• wear resistant
• The least expansive of all metallic
materials
Ductile (nodular) iron
• add Mg or Cerium (Ce)
• graphite in nodules(sphere)not flakes
• matrix often pearlite –
• better ductility and stronger than gray Chapter 11 - 12
 Types of Cast Iron
White iron
• <1wt% Si and fast cooling
• so harder but brittle
• more cementite instead of graphite
• is used as an intermediary in the
production of malleable iron.

Malleable iron
• heat white at 800-900ºC for
prolonged time
• graphite in rosettes
• relatively high strength and
appreciable ductility or malleability Chapter 11 - 13
Compacted graphite iron ( CGI)

• as gray, ductile, and malleable irons, carbon exists as graphite,

which formation is promoted by the presence of silicon
1.7-3 wt % Si, 3.1-4 wt% C
• lower fracture and fatigue resistance of the materials, because

of presence of sharp edges ( characteristic of flaks graphite)

• magnesium and/or cerium are added
Desirable characteristics of CGI include:

• higher thermal conductivity

• better resistance to thermal shock
• lower oxidation at elevated temperatures
• applications: diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds,
gearbox housing, flywheels

Chapter 11 - 14
Gray cast iron

Ductile iron

Malleable iron Connecting rod, transmission gear, pipe fittings

Compacted iron Diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifold,

brake discs for high speed trains

Chapter 11 - 15
Production of Cast Iron

Chapter 11 - 16
 Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high density

2) Relatively low conductivity
3) Poor corrosion resistance

Chapter 11 - 17
 Nonferrous Alloys

• cast alloys: alloys that are so brittle that forming or

shaping by appreciable deformation is not possible
ordinarily are cast

• wrought alloys: alloys that are amenable to

mechanical deformation

Chapter 11 - 18
 Copper and its alloys:
Unalloyed copper:
• it is difficult to machine because its soft and ductile
• it has an almost unlimited capacity to be cold worked
• it is highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments including
the ambient atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial chemicals.
• high electrical and thermal conductivity
• high ductility – EL 60%
• melting temperature 1080 C, density 8.9 g/cm3

Chapter 11 - 19
Copper alloys:
• improved the mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties
• most copper alloys cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat-
treating procedures
• copper – zinc alloys (brasses)
- zinc up to 40%
- quite ductile and formable
- good corrosion resistance
• copper – tin alloys (bronzes)
- more expensive because the high price of tin
- up to 20% Sn
- good strength, toughness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance
• coppers – beryllium alloys the most common precipitation
hardenable
copper alloys. They possess a remarkable combination
of properties: tensile strengths as high as 1400 Mpa, excellent
electrical and corrosion properties, and wear resistance when properly
Chapter 11 - 20
 Aluminum and its alloys
• high electrical and thermal conductivities
• light weight , density 2.7 g/cm3
• high resistance to corrosion in some common environments
• are easily formed by virtue of high ductility;
• limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature 660 C
• the mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by cold
work and by alloying
• alloying elements: copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, zinc
• A generation of new aluminum-lithium alloys
-- for use by the aircraft and aerospace industries
-- higher strength, greater stiffness, and lighter weight
-- materials have relatively low densities 2.5g/cm 3
-- high specific moduli (elastic modulus-specific gravity ratios)
-- excellent fatigue and low-temperature toughness properties
-- costly to manufacture than the conventional aluminum alloys
-- are highly machinable, and can be welded Chapter 11 - 21
 Magnesium and its alloys
• the most outstanding characteristic is its density, 1.7 g/cm3
• is relatively soft, and has a low elastic modulus
• at room temperature magnesium and its alloys are difficult to deform
• most fabrication is by casting or hot working
• has a moderately low melting temperature 651C
• fine magnesium powder ignites easily when heated in air
• aluminum, zinc, manganese, and some of the rare earths are the
major alloying elements
Titanium and its alloys
• the pure metal has a relatively low density(4.5 g/cm3), a high
melting point 1668C and an elastic modulus of 107GPa
• titanium alloys are extremely strong; room temperature tensile
strengths as high as 1400 Mpa are attainable, yielding remarkable
specific strengths. Furthermore, the alloys are highly ductile and
easily forged and machined
• the major limitation of titanium is its chemical reactivity with other
materials at elevated temperatures, high costs, fabricationChapter
difficult
11 - 22
 The Refractory metals
• metals that have extremely high melting temperatures
• included in this group are niobium (Nb 2470C), molybdenum
(Mo 2610), tungsten(W 3410), and tantalum (Ta 3000)
• melting temperatures range between 2470 C for niobium and 3410C

the highest melting temperature of any metal, for tungsten

• applications: tantalum and molybdenum are alloyed with stainless
steel to improve its corrosion resistance. Molybdenum alloys are
utilized for extrusion dies and structural parts in space vehicles;
incandescent light filaments x-ray tubes, and welding electrodes
employ tungsten alloys.

Chapter 11 - 23
 The super alloys
• have superlative combinations of properties
• most are used in aircraft turbine components, which must withstand

exposure to severely oxidizing environments and high temperatures

for reasonable time periods
• density is an important consideration
• these materials are classified according to the predominant metal in
the alloy, which may be cobalt, nickel, or iron.(7.8-8.9 g/cm3 )
• applications: jet engine, gas turbine, rocket, nuclear reactors
and petrochemical equipment. They posses high strength, creep
resistance, and corrosion resistance at temperature up to and in
excess of 1100 C
• are difficult to machine. Powder metallurgy techniques are also
being used extensively in the manufacturing of super alloy
components Chapter 11 - 24
 The Noble metals
• the noble or precious metals are a group of eight elements that
have some physical characteristics in common
• they are expensive
• are superior or notable (noble) in properties
• characteristically soft, ductile, and oxidation resistant
• silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium,

and osmium
Nickel and its alloys
• are highly resistant to corrosion in many environments(alkaline),
salt water, high-velocity, high-temperature steam
• nickel is often coated or plated on some metals that are susceptible
to corrosion as a protective measure
• nickel is one of the principal alloying elements in stainless steels,
and one of the major constituents in the superalloy
Chapter 11 - 25
• applications: pumps, valves, steam turbine blades
 Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm3 7.9 for steel
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant)35% Zn -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be: -very low : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
-reactive at high T • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
- space application. -Ag, Au, Pt
-oxid./corr. resistant

Chapter 11 - 26
 Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Molding - cast
• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape
Hot working vs. Cold working
• T high enough for • well below Tm
recrystallization • work hardening
• Larger deformations • smaller deformations
• Material loss -- increase strength
• Poor final surface finish -- higher quality surface
-- better mechanical properties

-- closer dimensional
Chaptercontrol
11 - 27
 Metal Fabrication Methods

FORMING CASTING JOINING

Forming: Forming operations are those in which the shape of a

metal piece is changed by plastic deformation; the deformation
must be induced by an external force or stress, the magnitude of
which must exceed the yield strength of the material. Most metallic
materials are especially amenable to these procedures, being at
least moderately ductile and capable of some permanent
deformation without cracking or fracturing.
hot working: When deformation is achieved at a temperature
above that at which recrystallization occurs. otherwise, it is
cold working. With most of the forming techniques, both hot- and
cold-working procedures are possible.
Chapter 11 - 28
 Casting: Casting is a fabrication process whereby a totally
molten metal is poured into a mold cavity having the desired shape;
upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but
experiences some shrinkage.

Casting techniques are employed when

(1)the finished shape is so large or complicated that any other method

would be impractical,
(2)a particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either hot or
cold working would be difficult, and
(3) in comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most
economical

Joining: powder metallurgy and welding

Chapter 11 - 29
 Metal Fabrication Methods - I

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
force
• Drawing • Extrusion
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
Chapter 11 - 30
Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a
normally hot metal; this may be accomplished by the application
of successive blows or by continuous squeezing. Forgings are
classified as either closed or open die.
Rolling is the most widely used deformation process, consists of
passing a piece of metal between two rolls; a reduction in thickness
results from compressive stresses exerted by the rolls. Cold rolling
may be used.
Extrusion a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a
compressive force that is applied to a ram; the extruded piece that
emerges has the desired shape and a reduced cross-sectional area.
Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a
tapered bore by means of a tensile force that is applied on the exit
side. A reduction in cross section results, with a corresponding
increase in length. The total drawing operation may consist of a
number of dies in a series sequence.
Chapter 11 - 31
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Casting- mold is filled with metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added. Then cast in a mold
– most common, cheapest method
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials

Chapter 11 - 32
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
• trying to hold something that is hot
auto engine blocks)
• what will withstand >1600ºC?
Sand Sand • cheap - easy to mold => sand!!!

molten metal • pack sand around form (pattern) of

desired shape

Chapter 11 - 33
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks) Investment Casting
• pattern is made from paraffin.
Sand Sand • mold made by encasing in
molten metal plaster of paris
• melt the wax & the hollow mold
• Investment Casting is left
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades) • pour in metal
plaster
die formed
around wax wax
prototype
Chapter 11 - 34
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting • Die Casting
(large parts, e.g., (high volume, low T alloys)
auto engine blocks)

Sand Sand

molten metal
• Continuous Casting
• Investment Casting (simple slab shapes)
(low volume, complex shapes
molten
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster solidified
die formed
around wax wax
prototype
Chapter 11 - 35
 Metal Fabrication Methods - III

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(materials w/low ductility) (when one large part is
impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2
density
• Heat affected zone:
point contact densification
by diffusion at
(region in which the
at low T
higher T microstructure has been
changed).
Chapter 11 - 36
Powder metallurgy: the compaction of powdered metal,
followed by a heat treatment to produce a more dense piece.
Powder metallurgy makes it possible to produce a virtually
nonporous piece having properties almost equivalent to the fully
dense parent material. Diffusional processes during the heat
treatment are central to the development of these properties.
suitable for metals having low ductilities.

Welding: two or more metal parts are joined to form a single

piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient.
Both similar and dissimilar metals may be welded.

Chapter 11 - 37
 Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an
elevated temperature for an extended time period and then slowly
cooled. Is used to negate the effects of cold work, that is, to soften
and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal. It
is commonly utilized during fabrication procedures that require
extensive plastic deformation

• relieve stresses;
• increase softness, ductility, and toughness;
• produce a specific microstructure.

Three steps:
1.heating to the desired temperature,
2.holding or ‘‘soaking’’ at that temperature, and
3.cooling, usually to room temperature
Chapter 11 - 38
Annealing of ferrous alloys:

1. Normalizing
2. Full annealing
3. Spheroidizing
Heat treatment of steels:

1. quenching
2. tempering
The successful heat treating of steels to produce a
predominantly martensitic microstructure throughout the
cross section depends mainly on three factors:

(1) the composition of the alloy,

(2) the type and character of the quenching medium, and
(3) the size and shape of the specimen.
Chapter 11 - 39
 Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):
stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below TE & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming by heating
Annealing to get , then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
• Normalize (steels):
cold working by
Deform steel with large
(recovery/
grains, then normalize
recrystallization)
to make grains small.

Chapter 11 - 40
 Heat Treatments
800
Austenite (stable)

a) Annealing T(°C) TE
A
b) Quenching P
600
c) Tempered
Martensite
B
400 A
10
0 %
50
0% %

0%
200 M+A
50%
M+A
90%

b) a)
10
-1
10 10
3
10
5 c)
time (s) Chapter 11 - 41
 Hardenability--Steels
• Ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.

flat ground
specimen
(heated to 
phase field) Rockwell C
24°C water hardness tests

• Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11 - 42
 Why Hardness Changes W/Position
• The cooling rate varies with position.

Hardness, HRC
60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(°C) 0%
600 P 100%

A
400

M(start)
200
A  M
Pe ine ens
0 M(finish) a r P it e
F
M
M ens

li t e e a +
ar
a r it e
t
t

rli Pe
te ar

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
l ite

Chapter 11 - 43
 Hardenability vs Alloy Composition
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (°C/s)
• Jominy end quench
60

Hardness, HRC
results, C = 0.4 wt% C 100

4340 80 %M
50
40 4140
8640

10
40
5140
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)

• "Alloy Steels" 800

(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) T(°C) TE
600 shift from
--contain Ni, Cr, Mo A B A to B due
(0.2 to 2wt%) 400 to alloying
--these elements shift
the "nose". M(start)
200
--martensite is easier M(90%)
to form. 0 -1
10 10 103 105 Time (s)
Chapter 11 - 44
 Quenching Medium & Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high

Chapter 11 - 45
 Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocations.
700
• Ex: Al-Cu system
T(°C) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600
--Pt A: solution heat treat
 +L
+L
A
(get  solid solution) 500 
--Pt B: quench to room temp. C 
400
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small  crystals within 300
0 B 10 20 30 40 50
 crystals. (Al) wt% Cu
composition range
• Other precipitation needed for precipitation hardening
systems:
• Cu-Be Temp.
Pt A (sol’n heat treat)
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al
Pt C (precipitate 

Time
Pt B
Chapter 11 - 46
 Precipitate Effect on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• TS peaks with • %EL reaches minimum
precipitation time. with precipitation time.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.
ita ll
cip ma
“ag tes
”
ed
ion

pre ny s
so .

era itat e
lid uil
lut

“ov cip larg

so n-eq

30
ma

ge es
tensile strength (MPa)

%EL (2 in sample)
pre wer

d”
no

400 fe
20
300
149°C 10
200 204°C 149 °C
204°C
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time

Chapter 11 - 47
 Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture
Alloys
• substitutional alloys
– can be ordered or disordered
– disordered solid solution
– ordered - periodic substitution
example: CuAu FCC

Cu
Au

Chapter 11 - 48
 Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture
• Interstitial alloys (compounds)
– one metal much larger than the other
– smaller metal goes in ordered way into
interstitial “holes” in the structure of larger
metal
– Ex: Cementite – Fe3C

Chapter 11 - 49
 Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture

• Consider FCC structure --- what types of

holes are there?
Octahedron - octahedral site = OH Tetrahedron - tetrahedral site = TD

Chapter 11 - 50
 Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture
• Interstitials such as H, N, B, C
• FCC has 4 atoms per unit cell
4 OH sites
8 TD sites
1 1 3 3
2 1 1 1
2 2 4, 4 4, 4

1
1 1 2
2 2

1
1 1 2 1 3 1 3
2 2 4, 4 4, 4

metal atoms OH sites TD sites

Chapter 11 - 51
 Summary

• Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding

--C (low alloy steels)
--Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
--ductility usually decreases w/additions.
• Non-ferrous:
--Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
• Fabrication techniques:
--forming, casting, joining.
• Hardenability
--increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--effective means to increase strength in
Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.

Chapter 11 - 52