CH 09
CH 09
CH 09
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
• How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?
Chapter 8 - 1
Failure mechanisms
1. Fracture
2. Fatigue
3. Creep
4. Corrosion
5. Buckling
6. Melting
7. Thermal shock
8. Wear
Chapter 8 - 2
1. Fracture mechanisms
Fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in
response to an imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly
changing with time) and at temperatures that are low relative to the
melting temperature of the material.
The applied stress may be tensile, compressive, shear, or torsional;
• Ductile fracture
– Occurs with plastic deformation
• Brittle fracture
– Little or no plastic deformation
– Suddenly and catastrophic
• Any fracture process involves two steps—crack formation and
propagation—in response to an imposed stress
Chapter 8 - 3
Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile
Ductility is a function of
temperature of the material,
the strain rate, and the stress
state. May be quantified in
term of %AR or %EL
• Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
Chapter 8 - 5
Moderately Ductile Failure
• Evolution to failure:( stages in the cup-cone fracture)
void void growth shearing
necking and linkage fracture
nucleation at surface
• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.
Chapter 8 - 6
Ductile vs. Brittle Failure
Chapter 8 - 8
Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Inter-granular • Intra-granular
(the fracture cracks pass (crack propagation is
through the grains) along grain boundaries)
304 S. Steel
(metal)
160 mm
4 mm 316 S. Steel
(metal)
Al Oxide
(ceramic)
Polypropylene
(polymer) 3 mm
1 mm
Chapter 8 - 9
Principles of fracture mechanics
This subject allows quantification of the relationships between
material properties, stress level, the presence of crack-
producing flaws, and crack propagation mechanisms.
1. stress concentration
2. Fracture toughness
Chapter 8 - 10
Stress Concentration
Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Results from crack propagation
• Griffith Crack
1/ 2
a
m 2o K t o
t
t where
t = radius of curvature
o = applied stress=F/A
m = stress at crack tip
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 13
Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
• A plastic material deforms at the tip, “blunting” the
crack.
deformed
region
brittle plastic
Chapter 8 - 14
When Does a Crack Propagate?
Crack propagates if applied stress is above
critical stress c ( it is the stress required for
crack propagation in a brittle materials)
i.e., m > c
or Kt > Kc 1/ 2
where 2E s
c
– E = modulus of elasticity a
s = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack
– Kc = c/0
Chapter 8 - 16
Design Against Crack Growth
• Relationship between critical stress for
crack propagation (σc) to crack length (a)
Callister 7e.
20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
2 PC
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete Chapter 8 - 18
0.5
The modes of crack surface
displacement
Chapter 8 - 19
Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc = Y c a
• Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max. flaw size --Result 2: Design stress
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
Kc 1 K c
design amax
Y amax Ydesign
amax
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture
Chapter 8 - 20
Plane strain fracture toughness k1c
K1c Y a
k1c Exist when specimen thickness is much greater than the crack dimensions,
Kc
becomes independent of thickness; under these conditions a condition of
plane strain exists. By plane strain we mean that when a load operates on a
crack there is no strain component perpendicular to the front and back faces.
The Kc value for this thick-specimen situation is known as the plane strain
fracture toughness KIc
TS
smaller
y
Chapter 8 - 23
Impact Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- determine the fracture properties of
materials
-- determine DBTT or not for materials
(Izod)
Chapter 8 - 24
Temperature
DBTT – is the material a ductile-to-brittle transition with decreasing
temperature and, if so, the range of temperatures over which it occur
Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
Chapter 8 - 25
For steel
Structures constructed from alloys that exhibit this ductile-to-
brittle behavior should be used only at temperatures above the
transition temperature, to avoid brittle and catastrophic
failure. Classic examples of this type of failure occurred, with
disastrous consequences, during World War II when a number
of welded transport ships, away from combat, suddenly and
precipitously split in half. The vessels were constructed of a
steel alloy that possessed adequate ductility according to room-
temperature tensile tests. The brittle fractures occurred at
relatively low ambient temperatures, at about 4C (40F), in the
vicinity of the transition temperature of the alloy. Each
fracture crack originated at some point of stress concentration,
probably a sharp corner or fabrication defect, and then
propagated around the entire girth of the ship
Chapter 8 - 26
Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • WWII: Liberty ships
motor counter
bearing bearing
flex coupling
tension on bottom
Range of stress
Stress amplitude
Stress ratio
Chapter 8 - 29
Fatigue Design Parameters
S-N curve
S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
unsafe steel (typ.)
--no fatigue if S < Sfat
Sfat
safe
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
• Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero! S = stress amplitude
case for
unsafe Al (typ.)
safe
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 30
The important parameters that characterize a material’s fatigue
behavior are
Chapter 8 - 31
Fatigue Mechanism
• The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three
distinct steps: (1) crack initiation, wherein a small crack
forms at some point of high stress concentration;
(2) crack propagation, during which this crack advances
incrementally with each stress cycle; and (3) final failure,
which occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has
reached a critical size.
• Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost always
initiate (or nucleate) on the surface of a component at some
point of stress concentration. Crack nucleation sites
include surface scratches, sharp fillets, keyways, threads,
dents, and the like. In addition, cyclic loading can produce
microscopic surface discontinuities resulting from
dislocation slip steps which may also act as stress raisers,
and therefore as crack initiation sites.
Chapter 8 - 32
Fatigue Mechanism
• Crack grows incrementally
da typ. 1 to 6( constant)
K
m
dN
~ a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster as
• increases
• crack gets longer
• loading freq. increases.
Chapter 8 - 33
Factors that affect fatigue life
1. Mean stress
2. Surface effects
3. Environmental effects
Chapter 8 - 34
1. Mean stress
The dependence of fatigue life on stress amplitude is
represented on the S–N plot. increasing the mean stress
level leads to a decrease in fatigue life
Chapter 8 - 35
2. Surface effect
For many common loading situations, the maximum
stress within a component or structure occurs at its surface.
consequently, most cracks leading to fatigue failure originate
at surface positions, specifically at stress amplification sites
• Design factor: Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act
as a stress raiser and fatigue crack initiation site; these design
features include grooves, holes, keyways, threads and so on.
• Surface treatment: 1. improving the surface finish by
polishing will enhance fatigue life significantly 2. imposing
residual compressive stresses within a thin outer surface layer
• Case (layer)hardening: is a technique whereby both surface
hardness and fatigue life are enhanced for steel alloys. This is
accomplished by a carburizing or nitriding process whereby a
component is exposed to a carbonaceous or nitrogenous
Chapter 8 - 36
atmosphere at an elevated temperature.
Environmental effects
1. thermal fatigue : is normally induced at elevated
temperatures by fluctuating thermal stresses; mechanical
stresses from an external source need not be present. The origin
of these thermal stresses is the restraint to the dimensional
expansion and/or contraction that would normally occur in a
structural member with variations in temperature. The
magnitude of a thermal stress developed by a temperature
change T is dependent on the coefficient of thermal expansion l
and the modulus of elasticity E according to
•
Chapter 8 - 37
Influence of stress and temperature T on creep behavior.
2. Corrosion fatigue: Failure that occurs by the
simultaneous action of a cyclic stress and chemical attack
surface stress
(to suppress surface Increasing
near zero or compressive m
cracks from growing) m moderate tensile m
Larger tensile m
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 40
Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress () vs. time
0 t
tertiary
primary
secondary
elastic
Chapter 8 - 42
Chapter 8 - 43
Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material constant)
Qc
s K 2 exp
n
activation energy for creep
strain rate RT (material constant)
material const. applied stress
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate s (%/1000hr)
Stress (logarithmic scale) versus steady-state creep rateChapter 8 -
45
(logarithmic scale) for a low carbon–nickel alloy at three temperatures.
Creep Failure
• Failure: • EX. Estimate rupture time
along grain boundaries. S-590 Iron, T = 800°C, = 20 ksi
g.b. cavities 100
applied
Stress, ksi
20
stress
10
data for
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of S-590 Iron
Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
1
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon 12 16 20 24 28
Press, Inc.)
L(10 3 K-log hr) 24x103 K-log hr
• Time to rupture, tr
T ( 20 logt r ) L T ( 20 logt r ) L
temperature function of 1073K
applied stress
time to failure (rupture) Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 8 - 46
ALLOYS FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE
USE
There a several factors that affect the creep characteristics of
metals. These include melting temperature, elastic modulus, and
grain size. In general, the higher the melting temperature, the
greater the elastic modulus, and the larger the grain size, the better
is a material’s resistance to creep.
Stainless steels, the refractory metals and the superalloys are
especially resilient to creep and are commonly employed in high-
temperature service applications. The creep resistance of the cobalt
and nickel superalloys is enhanced by solid-solution alloying,
and also by the addition of a dispersed phase which is virtually
insoluble in the matrix. In addition, advanced processing
techniques have been utilized; one such technique is directional
solidification, which produces either highly elongated grains or
single-crystal Chapter 8 - 47
Chapter 8 - 48
4. Corrosion
• Corrosion is breaking down! of essential
properties in a material due to reactions with
its surroundings. In the most common use of
the word, this means a loss of an electron of
metals reacting with water and oxygen
• Weakening of iron due to oxidation of the iron
atoms is a well-known example of
electrochemical corrosion. This is commonly
known as rust This type of damage usually
affects metallic materials, and typically
produces oxide(s) and/or salt(s) of the original
metal
Chapter 8 - 49
Rust, the most familiar
example of corrosion
Chapter 8 - 50
Resistant to corrosion
1. Intrinsic chemistry:
GOLD nuggets do not
corrode, even on a
geological time scale.
Chapter 8 - 51
2. Passivation:
Chapter 8 - 52
3. surface treatment ( coating ):
Chapter 8 - 53
5. Buckling
• In engineering, buckling is a failure mode
characterized by a sudden failure of a structural
member subjected to high compressive
stresses, where the actual compressive
stresses at failure are smaller than the ultimate
compressive stresses that the material is
capable of withstanding. This mode of failure is
also described as failure due to elastic
instability
Chapter 8 - 54
Buckling in columns
• Constant temperature
Substances melt at a constant temperature, the melting point.
Further increases in temperature (even with continued
application of energy) do not occur until the substance is molten
Chapter 8 - 58
7. Thermal chock
• Thermal shock is the name given to cracking as
a result of rapid temperature change. Glass and
ceramic objects are particularly vulnerable to this
form of failure, due to their low toughness, low
thermal conductivity, and high thermal expansion
coefficients
• Thermal shock occurs when a thermal gradient
causes different parts of an object to expand by
different amounts. This differential expansion can
be understood in terms of stress or of strain,
equivalently. At some point, this stress
overcomes the strength of the material, causing a
crack to form. If nothing stops this crack from
propagating through the material, it will cause the
object's structure to fail Chapter 8 - 59
Thermal shock can be prevented by:
Chapter 8 - 60
Example.
Borosilicate glass such as Pyrex is made to withstand
thermal shock better than most other glass through a
combination of reduced expansion coefficient and greater
strength, though fused quartz outperforms it in both these
respects. Some glass-ceramic materials include a
controlled proportion of material with a negative
expansion coefficient, so that the overall coefficient can be
reduced to almost exactly zero over a reasonably wide
range of temperatures
Chapter 8 - 61
8. wear
• Wear is the erosion of material from a solid
surface by the action of another solid, or
a. Adhesive wear
b.Abrasive wear
c. Corrosive wear
d.Surface fatigue
Chapter 8 - 63
a. Adhesive wear
Adhesive wear is also known as scoring, galling, or seizing. It
occurs when two solid surfaces slide over one another under
pressure. Surface projections, or asperities, are plastically
deformed and eventually welded together by the high local
pressure. As sliding continues, these bonds are broken,
producing cavities on the surface, projections on the second
surface, and frequently tiny, abrasive particles, all of which
contribute to future wear of surfaces
b. Abrasive wear
When material is removed by contact with hard particles,
abrasive wear occurs. The particles either may be present at the
surface of a second material or may exist as loose particles
between two surfaces
Chapter 8 - 64
c. Corrosive wear
Often referred to simply as “corrosion”, corrosive wear is
deterioration of useful properties in a material due to
reactions with its environment
d. Surface fatigue
Surface fatigue is a process by which the surface of a
material is weakened by cyclic loading, which is one type of
general material fatigue
Chapter 8 - 65
SUMMARY
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- for cyclic :
- cycles to fail decreases as increases.
- for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to fail decreases as or T increases.
Chapter 8 - 66
Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber