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Chapter 8: Mechanical Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
• How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic


from waves. thermal loading. loading from walking.

Chapter 8 - 1
Failure mechanisms
1. Fracture
2. Fatigue
3. Creep
4. Corrosion
5. Buckling
6. Melting
7. Thermal shock
8. Wear

Chapter 8 - 2
1. Fracture mechanisms
Fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in
response to an imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly
changing with time) and at temperatures that are low relative to the
melting temperature of the material.
The applied stress may be tensile, compressive, shear, or torsional;
• Ductile fracture
– Occurs with plastic deformation
• Brittle fracture
– Little or no plastic deformation
– Suddenly and catastrophic
• Any fracture process involves two steps—crack formation and
propagation—in response to an imposed stress
Chapter 8 - 3
Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile
Ductility is a function of
temperature of the material,
the strain rate, and the stress
state. May be quantified in
term of %AR or %EL

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small


• Ductile Ductile: Brittle:
fracture is usually 1. warning before No
desirable! fracture warning
2.More strain
energy is required Chapter 8 - 4
Example: Failure of a Pipe
• Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

• Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation

Chapter 8 - 5
Moderately Ductile Failure
• Evolution to failure:( stages in the cup-cone fracture)
void void growth shearing
necking and linkage fracture
nucleation at surface

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.
Chapter 8 - 6
Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture in aluminum brittle fracture in a mild steel

Metal alloys are ductile


Ceramics are notably brittle
Polymers may exhibit both types of fracture.
Chapter 8 - 7
Brittle Failure
Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation,
and by rapid crack propagation.
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated

Chapter 8 - 8
Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Inter-granular • Intra-granular
(the fracture cracks pass (crack propagation is
through the grains) along grain boundaries)

304 S. Steel
(metal)
160 mm
4 mm 316 S. Steel
(metal)

Al Oxide
(ceramic)

Polypropylene
(polymer) 3 mm
1 mm
Chapter 8 - 9
Principles of fracture mechanics
This subject allows quantification of the relationships between
material properties, stress level, the presence of crack-
producing flaws, and crack propagation mechanisms.

1. stress concentration

2. Fracture toughness

3. Design using fracture mechanics

4. Impact fracture testing

Chapter 8 - 10
Stress Concentration
Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Results from crack propagation
• Griffith Crack
1/ 2
a 
 m  2o    K t o
 t 

t where
t = radius of curvature
o = applied stress=F/A
m = stress at crack tip

Flaws: are called stress raiser


Chapter 8 - 11
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip
• Stress amplification is not restricted
to these microscopic defects; it may
occur at macroscopic internal
discontinuities (e.g., voids), at sharp
corners, and at notches in large
structures.
• The effect of a stress raiser is more
significant in brittle than in ductile
materials. For a ductile material,
plastic deformation ensues when the
maximum stress exceeds the yield
strength. This lead to a more uniform
distribution of stress in the vicinity of
the stress raiser. Such yielding and
stress redistribution do not occur to
any appreciable extent around flaws
and discontinuities in brittle
materials; therefore, essentially the
theoretical stress concentration will
result. Chapter 8 - 12
Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid sharp corners!
o 
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = 
o
w
max 2.5
It is a measure of
r, h the degree to which
fillet 2.0 increasing an external stress is
radius w/h amplified at
the tip of a crack.
1.5

1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8 - 13
Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
• A plastic material deforms at the tip, “blunting” the
crack.
deformed
region
brittle plastic

Energy balance on the crack


• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy

Chapter 8 - 14
When Does a Crack Propagate?
Crack propagates if applied stress is above
critical stress c ( it is the stress required for
crack propagation in a brittle materials)
i.e., m > c
or Kt > Kc 1/ 2
where  2E s 
c   
– E = modulus of elasticity  a 
 s = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack
– Kc = c/0

For ductile => replace s by s + p


where p is plastic deformation energy Chapter 8 - 15
problem

Chapter 8 - 16
Design Against Crack Growth
• Relationship between critical stress for
crack propagation (σc) to crack length (a)

- Is fracture toughness, a property that is a measure of a


material’s resistance to brittle fracture when a crack is present.

Y - is a dimensionless parameter or function that depends on both

crack and specimen sizes and geometries, as well as the


manner of load application.( Y = 1 – 1.1)
Chapter 8 - 17
Fracture Toughness
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100 KIC - plane strain
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70
60
Steels fracture toughness
Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B5,
K Ic (MPa · m0.5 )

Callister 7e.
20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
2 PC
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete Chapter 8 - 18
0.5
The modes of crack surface
displacement

The three modes of crack surface displacement. (a) Mode I,


opening or tensile mode; (b) mode II, sliding mode; and ( c)
mode III, tearing mode.

Chapter 8 - 19
Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc = Y c a
• Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max. flaw size --Result 2: Design stress
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
Kc 1  K c 
design  amax  
Y amax   Ydesign 

amax

fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture 
Chapter 8 - 20
Plane strain fracture toughness k1c
K1c  Y  a
k1c Exist when specimen thickness is much greater than the crack dimensions,
Kc
becomes independent of thickness; under these conditions a condition of
plane strain exists. By plane strain we mean that when a load operates on a
crack there is no strain component perpendicular to the front and back faces.
The Kc value for this thick-specimen situation is known as the plane strain
fracture toughness KIc

The plane strain fracture toughness KIc is a fundamental material


property that depends on many factors, the most influential of which
are temperature, strain rate, and microstructure. The magnitude of KIc
diminishes with increasing strain rate and decreasing temperature.
increases with reduction in grain size Chapter 8 - 21
Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
Kc --failure stress = ?
• Use... c 
Y amax
• Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

c amax A  c amax B


Answer: (c )B  168 MPa
• Reducing flaw size pays off!
 Chapter 8 - 22
Loading Rate

• Increased loading rate... • Why? An increased rate


-- increases y and TS gives less time for
-- decreases %EL dislocations to move past
obstacles.

TS 
y larger


TS
smaller
y

Chapter 8 - 23
Impact Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- determine the fracture properties of
materials
-- determine DBTT or not for materials

(Izod)

final height initial height

Chapter 8 - 24
Temperature
DBTT – is the material a ductile-to-brittle transition with decreasing
temperature and, if so, the range of temperatures over which it occur

• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...


FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)
Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)


polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials (  y > E/150)

Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
Chapter 8 - 25
For steel
Structures constructed from alloys that exhibit this ductile-to-
brittle behavior should be used only at temperatures above the
transition temperature, to avoid brittle and catastrophic
failure. Classic examples of this type of failure occurred, with
disastrous consequences, during World War II when a number
of welded transport ships, away from combat, suddenly and
precipitously split in half. The vessels were constructed of a
steel alloy that possessed adequate ductility according to room-
temperature tensile tests. The brittle fractures occurred at
relatively low ambient temperatures, at about 4C (40F), in the
vicinity of the transition temperature of the alloy. Each
fracture crack originated at some point of stress concentration,
probably a sharp corner or fabrication defect, and then
propagated around the entire girth of the ship

Chapter 8 - 26
Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • WWII: Liberty ships

• Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.


Chapter 8 - 27
2. Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under dynamics and fluctuating stress(cyclic).
specimen compression on top

motor counter
bearing bearing

flex coupling
tension on bottom

• Stress varies with time. 


max
-- key parameters are S, m, and S
m
frequency
min time

• Key points: Fatigue...


--can cause part failure, even though max < c.
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Chapter 8 - 28
Mean stress

Range of stress

Stress amplitude

Stress ratio

Chapter 8 - 29
Fatigue Design Parameters
S-N curve
S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
unsafe steel (typ.)
--no fatigue if S < Sfat
Sfat
safe

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
• Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero! S = stress amplitude
case for
unsafe Al (typ.)

safe

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 30
The important parameters that characterize a material’s fatigue
behavior are

1.fatigue limit: This fatigue limit represents the largest value of


fluctuating stress that will not cause failure for essentially an
infinite number of cycles(below which fatigue failure will not
occur.( most nonferrous alloys (Al,Cu,…)don’t have FL
2.fatigue life Nf . It is the number of cycles to cause failure at a
specified stress level, as taken from the S–N plot

Chapter 8 - 31
Fatigue Mechanism
• The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three
distinct steps: (1) crack initiation, wherein a small crack
forms at some point of high stress concentration;
(2) crack propagation, during which this crack advances
incrementally with each stress cycle; and (3) final failure,
which occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has
reached a critical size.
• Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost always
initiate (or nucleate) on the surface of a component at some
point of stress concentration. Crack nucleation sites
include surface scratches, sharp fillets, keyways, threads,
dents, and the like. In addition, cyclic loading can produce
microscopic surface discontinuities resulting from
dislocation slip steps which may also act as stress raisers,
and therefore as crack initiation sites.

Chapter 8 - 32
Fatigue Mechanism
• Crack grows incrementally
da typ. 1 to 6( constant)
 K 
m

dN
~   a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster as
•  increases
• crack gets longer
• loading freq. increases.

Chapter 8 - 33
Factors that affect fatigue life
1. Mean stress

2. Surface effects

3. Environmental effects

Chapter 8 - 34
1. Mean stress
The dependence of fatigue life on stress amplitude is
represented on the S–N plot. increasing the mean stress
level leads to a decrease in fatigue life

Chapter 8 - 35
2. Surface effect
For many common loading situations, the maximum
stress within a component or structure occurs at its surface.
consequently, most cracks leading to fatigue failure originate
at surface positions, specifically at stress amplification sites
• Design factor: Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act
as a stress raiser and fatigue crack initiation site; these design
features include grooves, holes, keyways, threads and so on.
• Surface treatment: 1. improving the surface finish by
polishing will enhance fatigue life significantly 2. imposing
residual compressive stresses within a thin outer surface layer
• Case (layer)hardening: is a technique whereby both surface
hardness and fatigue life are enhanced for steel alloys. This is
accomplished by a carburizing or nitriding process whereby a
component is exposed to a carbonaceous or nitrogenous
Chapter 8 - 36
atmosphere at an elevated temperature.
Environmental effects
1. thermal fatigue : is normally induced at elevated
temperatures by fluctuating thermal stresses; mechanical
stresses from an external source need not be present. The origin
of these thermal stresses is the restraint to the dimensional
expansion and/or contraction that would normally occur in a
structural member with variations in temperature. The
magnitude of a thermal stress developed by a temperature
change T is dependent on the coefficient of thermal expansion l
and the modulus of elasticity E according to

Chapter 8 - 37
Influence of stress and temperature T on creep behavior.
2. Corrosion fatigue: Failure that occurs by the
simultaneous action of a cyclic stress and chemical attack

• Small pits may form as a result of chemical reactions


between the environment and material, which serve as
points of stress concentration, and therefore as crack
nucleation sites.

• Several approaches to corrosion fatigue


prevention
exist:

- apply protective surface coatings,

- select a more corrosion resistant material


Chapter 8 - 38
Improving Fatigue Life
1. Impose a compressive S = stress amplitude

surface stress
(to suppress surface Increasing
near zero or compressive m
cracks from growing) m moderate tensile m
Larger tensile m

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing


shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better


concentrators.
bad better
Chapter 8 - 39
3. Creep
• The time-dependent permanent deformation
that occurs when material are subjected to a
constant load or stress; for most materials it
is important only at elevated temperatures.

• For metals it becomes important only for


temperatures greater than about 0.4Tm (Tm
absolute melting temperature).

Chapter 8 - 40
Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress () vs. time



0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)


decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope.
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate)
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Chapter 8 - 41
Creep
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Chapter 8 - 42
Chapter 8 - 43
Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, 
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material constant)
 Qc 
 s  K 2 exp 
n
 activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material constant)
material const. applied stress

With either increasing stress or temperature, the following


will be noted:
(1)the instantaneous strain at the time of stress
application increases;
(2)the steady-state creep rate is increased;

(3) the rupture lifetime is diminished.


Chapter 8 - 44
Stress (logarithmic scale) versus
rupture lifetime (logarithmic
scale) for a low carbon–nickel alloy
at three temperatures

200 Stress (MPa)


427°C
100
• Strain rate 538 °C
40
increases
20
for higher T,  649 °C
10

10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate s (%/1000hr)
Stress (logarithmic scale) versus steady-state creep rateChapter 8 -
45
(logarithmic scale) for a low carbon–nickel alloy at three temperatures.
Creep Failure
• Failure: • EX. Estimate rupture time
along grain boundaries. S-590 Iron, T = 800°C,  = 20 ksi
g.b. cavities 100

applied

Stress, ksi
20
stress
10

data for
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of S-590 Iron
Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
1
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon 12 16 20 24 28
Press, Inc.)
L(10 3 K-log hr) 24x103 K-log hr
• Time to rupture, tr
T ( 20  logt r )  L T ( 20  logt r )  L
temperature function of 1073K
applied stress
time to failure (rupture) Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 8 - 46
ALLOYS FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE
USE
There a several factors that affect the creep characteristics of
metals. These include melting temperature, elastic modulus, and
grain size. In general, the higher the melting temperature, the
greater the elastic modulus, and the larger the grain size, the better
is a material’s resistance to creep.
Stainless steels, the refractory metals and the superalloys are
especially resilient to creep and are commonly employed in high-
temperature service applications. The creep resistance of the cobalt
and nickel superalloys is enhanced by solid-solution alloying,
and also by the addition of a dispersed phase which is virtually
insoluble in the matrix. In addition, advanced processing
techniques have been utilized; one such technique is directional
solidification, which produces either highly elongated grains or
single-crystal Chapter 8 - 47
Chapter 8 - 48
4. Corrosion
• Corrosion is breaking down! of essential
properties in a material due to reactions with
its surroundings. In the most common use of
the word, this means a loss of an electron of
metals reacting with water and oxygen
• Weakening of iron due to oxidation of the iron
atoms is a well-known example of
electrochemical corrosion. This is commonly
known as rust This type of damage usually
affects metallic materials, and typically
produces oxide(s) and/or salt(s) of the original
metal

Chapter 8 - 49
Rust, the most familiar
example of corrosion

-- Most structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to


moisture in the air, but the process can be strongly affected by
exposure to certain substances. Corrosion can be concentrated
locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide
area to produce general deterioration

Chapter 8 - 50
Resistant to corrosion

1. Intrinsic chemistry:
GOLD nuggets do not
corrode, even on a
geological time scale.

The materials most resistant to corrosion are those for


which corrosion is thermodynamically unfavorable.
Any corrosion products of gold or platinum tend to
decompose spontaneously into pure metal, which is
why these elements can be found in metallic form on
Earth, and is a large part of their intrinsic value

Chapter 8 - 51
2. Passivation:

Given the right conditions, a thin film of corrosion products


can form on a metal's surface spontaneously, acting as a
barrier to further oxidation. When this layer stops growing
at less than a micrometre thick under the conditions that a
material will be used in, the phenomenon is known as
passivation

Passivation in air and water is seen in such materials as


aluminum, stainless steel, titanium, and silicon

Chapter 8 - 52
3. surface treatment ( coating ):

Plating, painting, and the application of enamel are the


most common anti-corrosion treatments. They work by
providing a barrier of corrosion-resistant material between
the damaging environment and the (often cheaper, tougher,
and/or easier-to-process) structural material

Example: chromium on steel

Chapter 8 - 53
5. Buckling
• In engineering, buckling is a failure mode
characterized by a sudden failure of a structural
member subjected to high compressive
stresses, where the actual compressive
stresses at failure are smaller than the ultimate
compressive stresses that the material is
capable of withstanding. This mode of failure is
also described as failure due to elastic
instability

Chapter 8 - 54
Buckling in columns

• A column under a centric axial load exhibiting the


characteristic deformation of buckling

• The eccentricity of the axial force results in a bending moment


acting on the beam element Chapter 8 - 55
Euler formula that gives the maximum axial load ( critical load)
that column can carry without buckling

F = maximum or critical force (vertical load on column),


E = modulus of elasticity,
I = area moment of inertia,
l = unsupported length of column,
K = column effective length factor, whose value depends on the
conditions of end support of the column, as follows.
For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), K = 1.0.
For both ends fixed, K = 0.50.
For one end fixed and the other end pinned, K = 0.70.
For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, K = 2.0.
Chapter 8 - 56
6. Melting
• Melting is a process that results in the
phase change of a substance from a solid
to a liquid. The internal energy of a solid
substance is increased (typically by the
application of heat) to a specific
temperature (called the melting point) at
which it changes to the liquid phase. An
object that has melted completely is molten

• The melting point of a substance is equal


to its freezing point
Chapter 8 - 57
• Molecular vibrations
When the internal energy of a solid is increased by the application
of an external energy source, the molecular vibrations of the
substance increases. As these vibrations increase, the substance
becomes more and more disordered

• Constant temperature
Substances melt at a constant temperature, the melting point.
Further increases in temperature (even with continued
application of energy) do not occur until the substance is molten

Chapter 8 - 58
7. Thermal chock
• Thermal shock is the name given to cracking as
a result of rapid temperature change. Glass and
ceramic objects are particularly vulnerable to this
form of failure, due to their low toughness, low
thermal conductivity, and high thermal expansion
coefficients
• Thermal shock occurs when a thermal gradient
causes different parts of an object to expand by
different amounts. This differential expansion can
be understood in terms of stress or of strain,
equivalently. At some point, this stress
overcomes the strength of the material, causing a
crack to form. If nothing stops this crack from
propagating through the material, it will cause the
object's structure to fail Chapter 8 - 59
Thermal shock can be prevented by:

1.Reducing the thermal gradient seen by the object, by


a) changing its temperature more slowly
b) increasing the material's thermal conductivity

2.Reducing the material's coefficient of thermal expansion

3.Increasing its strength

4.Increasing its toughness, by


a) crack tip blunting, i.e., plasticity or phase transformation
b) crack deflection

Chapter 8 - 60
Example.
Borosilicate glass such as Pyrex is made to withstand
thermal shock better than most other glass through a
combination of reduced expansion coefficient and greater
strength, though fused quartz outperforms it in both these
respects. Some glass-ceramic materials include a
controlled proportion of material with a negative
expansion coefficient, so that the overall coefficient can be
reduced to almost exactly zero over a reasonably wide
range of temperatures

Chapter 8 - 61
8. wear
• Wear is the erosion of material from a solid
surface by the action of another solid, or

it is a process in which interaction of surface(s) or


bounding face(s) of a solid with the working
environment results in the dimensional loss of the
solid, with or without loss of material
• Wear environment includes loads(types include
unidirectional sliding, reciprocating, rolling,
impact),speed, temperatures, counter-bodies(solid,
liquid, gas), types of contact (single phase or
multiphase in which phases involved can be liquid
plus solid particles plus gas bubbles)
Chapter 8 - 62
principal wear processes
• There are four principal wear processes:

a. Adhesive wear

b.Abrasive wear

c. Corrosive wear

d.Surface fatigue

Chapter 8 - 63
a. Adhesive wear
Adhesive wear is also known as scoring, galling, or seizing. It
occurs when two solid surfaces slide over one another under
pressure. Surface projections, or asperities, are plastically
deformed and eventually welded together by the high local
pressure. As sliding continues, these bonds are broken,
producing cavities on the surface, projections on the second
surface, and frequently tiny, abrasive particles, all of which
contribute to future wear of surfaces
b. Abrasive wear
When material is removed by contact with hard particles,
abrasive wear occurs. The particles either may be present at the
surface of a second material or may exist as loose particles
between two surfaces

Chapter 8 - 64
c. Corrosive wear
Often referred to simply as “corrosion”, corrosive wear is
deterioration of useful properties in a material due to
reactions with its environment

d. Surface fatigue
Surface fatigue is a process by which the surface of a
material is weakened by cyclic loading, which is one type of
general material fatigue

Chapter 8 - 65
SUMMARY
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic  and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- for cyclic :
- cycles to fail decreases as  increases.
- for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to fail decreases as  or T increases.
Chapter 8 - 66
Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
 perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal


typical polymer
0.1 
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed...
-- the longer the wire, the
smaller the load for failure.
• Reasons:
-- flaws cause premature failure.
-- Larger samples contain more flaws!
Chapter 8 - 67

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