VEDAS AND EPICS

INTRODUCTION OF HINDUISM
• Hinduism embraces many religious ideas. For this reason, it’s sometimes referred
to as a “way of life” or a “family of religions,” as opposed to a single, organized
religion.
• Most forms of Hinduism are monotheism, which means they worship a single deity,
known as “Brahman,” but still recognize other gods and goddesses. Followers
believe there are multiple paths to reaching their god.
• Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death,
and reincarnation) and karma (the universal law of cause and effect).
• One of the key thoughts of Hinduism is “atman,” or the belief in soul. This
philosophy holds that living creatures have a soul, and they’re all part of the
supreme soul. The goal is to achieve “moksha,” or salvation, which ends the cycle
of rebirths to become part of the absolute soul.
• Hinduism is closely related to other Indian religions, including Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism
• Some form of the belief system which would become, or at least influence, Hinduism most
likely existed in the Indus Valley prior to the 3rd millennium BCE when a nomadic coalition of
tribes who referred to themselves as Aryan came to the region from Central Asia. Some of
these people, now referred to as Indo-Iranians, settled in the region of modern-day Iran (some
of whom came to be known in the West as Persians) while others, now known as Indo-Aryans,
made their home in the Indus Valley. The term Aryan referred to a class of people, not a race,
and meant “free man” or “noble”. The long-standing myth of an “Aryan Invasion” in which
Caucasians “brought civilization” to the region is the product of narrow-minded and
prejudiced 18th- and 19th-century Western scholarship and has long been discredited.
•
The early Indus Valley religion developed through the influence of the new arrivals during the
Vedic Period. During this time, the belief system known as Vedism was developed by the so-
called Vedic peoples who wrote in Sanskrit, the language the Vedas are composed in. Scholar
John M. Koller writes:
• The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the
pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions,
ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period,
which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations,
starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE.[499][note 34] The subsequent period,
between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu
religions",[502] and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and
Early Puranic period, from c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism
(c. 320-650 CE), which coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period the six branches of
Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and
Vedanta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same
period through the Bhakti movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the
late Classical period[15] or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is
established, and Adi Shankara's influential consolidation of Advaita Vedanta.[503]
• The primary sacred texts, known as the Vedas, were composed around 1500
B.C. This collection of verses and hymns was written in Sanskrit and contains
revelations received by ancient saints and sages.
• The Vedas are made up of:
• The Rig Veda
• The Samaveda
• Yajurveda
• Atharvaveda
• Hindus believe that the Vedas transcend all time and don’t have a beginning
or an end.
• The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, 18 Puranas, Ramayana and
Mahabharata are also considered important texts in Hinduism.
• The four main castes (in order of prominence) include:
1. Brahmin: the intellectual and spiritual leaders
2. Kshatriyas: the protectors and public servants of society
3. Vaisyas: the skillful producers
4. Shudras: the unskilled laborers

• "oldest religion" in the world.

puranas
• Purana (/pʊˈrɑːnə/; Sanskrit: पुराण, purāṇa; literally meaning "ancient, old"[1]) is a vast genre of Indian literature
about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends and other traditional lore. [2] The Puranas are known for
the intricate layers of symbolism depicted within their stories. Composed originally in Sanskrit[3] and in other
Indian languages,[4][5] several of these texts are named after major Hindu gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, and
Adi Shakti.[6][7] The Puranic genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism.[5]
• The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,[1] and it includes diverse topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies
of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy,
grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy. [2][4][6] The content is highly
inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves
inconsistent.[5] The Hindu Maha Puranas are traditionally attributed to "Vyasa", but many scholars considered them
likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors
assigned.[5]
• There are 18 Mukhya Puranas (Major Puranas) and 18 Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas),[8] with over 400,000 verses.[2]
The first versions of various Puranas were likely to have been composed between 3rd and 10th century CE. [9] The
Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism, [8] but are considered as Smritis.[10]
• They have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. [
 Puranas
• Purana is a Sanskrit word that means "ancient." Puranas were first created by Sage Veda-Vyasa, according to legend.
• The Hindu Maha Puranas are generally credited to "Vyasa," although many academics believe they were written by a
number of writers over time; by contrast, most Jaina Puranas may be dated and authors assigned.
• The Agni Purana has 15,400 verses.
• The Srimad Bhagavata Purana has 18,000 verses. The most revered and well-known of the Puranas, it tells the story of
Vishnu's ten Avatars. Its eleventh and longest chapter recounts Krishna's exploits, beginning with his boyhood escapades, a
topic later built on by various Bhakti organisations.
• Bhavishya Purana has 14,500 verses.
• The Brahma Purana has 24,000 verses.
• Brahmanda Purana has 12,000 lines, including Lalita Sahasranamam, a scripture that some Hindus repeat as prayer.
• The Brahmavaivarta Purana has 18,000 verses.
• The Garuda Purana has 19,000 verses.
• Harivamsa Purana, which contains 16,000 verses; itihsa Linga Purana, which has 11,000 verses.
• Shortest Purana is Markandeya Purana, which comprises 9,000 verses and includes Devi Mahatmyam, an essential literature
for Shaktas.
• Matsya Purana has 14,000 verses.
• The Narada Purana has 25,000 verses.
• Padma Purana has 55,000 verses.
• The longest Purana is Skanda Purana, which includes 81,100 verses.
• Surya Purana Vamana Purana (10,000 verses)
• The Vayu Purana has 24,000 verses.
vedas
• The Vedas (/ˈveɪdə(z)/[4] or /ˈviːdə(z)/,[5] IAST: veda, Sanskrit: वेदः, lit.
'knowledge') are a large body of religious texts originating in
ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the
oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of
Hinduism.[6][7][8]
• Vedas are śruti ("what is heard"),[16] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which
are called smṛti ("what is remembered")
• The Vedas have been orally transmitted since the 2nd millennium BCE with the help of
elaborate mnemonic techniques.[23][24][25] The mantras, the oldest part of the Vedas, are
recited in the modern age for their phonology rather than the semantics, and are
considered to be "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they
refer.[26] By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the
forms of creation at their base."[26]
• The various Indian philosophies and Hindu denominations have taken differing positions
on the Vedas; schools of Indian philosophy that acknowledge the primal authority of the
Vedas are classified as "orthodox" (āstika).[note 2] Other śramaṇa traditions, such as
Charvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism, and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities,
are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.[
• The Vedas are the religious texts which inform the religion of
Hinduism (also known as Sanatan Dharma meaning “Eternal Order”
or “Eternal Path”). The term veda means “knowledge” in that they are
thought to contain the fundamental knowledge relating to the
underlying cause of, function of, and personal response to existence.
The Vedas existed in oral form and were passed down from master to
student for generations until they were committed to writing
between c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE (the so-called Vedic Period) in India.
They were carefully preserved orally as masters would have students
memorize them forwards and backwards with emphasis on exact
pronunciation in order to keep what was originally heard intact.
• Each Veda consists of four parts--the Samhitas (hymns),
the Brahmanas (rituals), the Aranyakas (theologies) and
the Upanishads (philosophies). The collection of mantras or hymns is
called the Samhita.
• Aranyakas - rituals, observances
• Brahmanas - commentaries on said rituals
• Samhitas - benedictions, prayers, mantras
• Upanishads – philosophical narratives and dialogues
Samhita

Saṃhitā literally means "put together, joined, union",[1] a "collection",[2] and "a methodically, rule-
based combination of text or verses".[1] Saṃhitā also refers to the most ancient layer of text in the
Vedas, consisting of mantras, hymns, prayers, litanies and benedictions.[3] Saṃhita is a Sanskrit
word from the prefix sam (सम्), 'together', and hita (हित),
• In the most generic context, a Samhita may refer to any methodical collection of text or verses: Any shastra, sutra, or Sanskrit Epic, along
with Vedic texts, might be referred to as a Samhita.[1]
• Samhita, however, in contemporary literature typically implies the earliest, archaic part of the Vedas. These contain mantras – sacred
sounds with or without literal meaning, as well as panegyrics, prayers, litanies and benedictions petitioning nature or Vedic deities.[3] Vedic
Samhita refer to mathematically precise metrical archaic text of each of the Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda).
• The Vedic Samhitas were chanted during ceremonies and rituals, and parts of it remain the oldest living part of Hindu tradition.[3]
• A collective study of Vedas and later text suggests that the compendium of Samhitas and associated Vedic texts were far larger than
currently available. However, most have been lost at some point or over a period of Indian history. [11]
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samhita#Discussion
arakanyas
• The Aranyakas are a part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with
the meaning of ritual sacrifice.[1] They typically represent the later
sections of the Vedas, and are one of many layers of Vedic
textsAranyakas describe and discuss rituals from various perspectives;
some include philosophical speculations. "Aranyaka" (āraṇyaka)
literally means "produced, born, relating to a forest " or rather,
"belonging to the wilderness". It is derived from the
word Araṇya (अरण्य), which means "wilderness".[12][13]
• The Aranyakas discuss sacrifices, in the language and style of the Brahmanas, and thus are primarily concerned with the
proper performance of ritual (orthopraxy). The Aranyakas were restricted to a particular class of rituals that nevertheless were
frequently included in the Vedic curriculum.
• The Aranyakas are associated with, and named for, individual Vedic shakhas.
• Rigveda
• Aitareya Aranyaka belongs to the Aitareya Shakha of Rigveda
• Kaushitaki Aranyaka belongs to the Kaushitaki and Shankhayana Shakhas of Rigveda
• Yajurveda
• Taittiriya Aranyaka belongs to the Taittiriya Shakha of the Krishna Yajurveda
• Maitrayaniya Aranyaka belongs to the Maitrayaniya Shakha of the Krishna Yajurveda
• Katha Aranyaka belongs to the (Caraka)Katha Shakha of the Krishna Yajurveda[16]
• Brihad Aranyaka in the Madhyandina and the Kanva versions of the Shukla Yajurveda. The Madhyandina version has 9 sections, of which the
last 6 are the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
• Samaveda
• Talavakara Aranyaka or Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana belongs to the Talavakara or Jaiminiya Shakha of the Samaveda
• Aranyaka Samhita is not a typical Aranyaka text: rather the Purvarchika of the Samaveda Samhitas has a section of mantras, called the
'Aranyaka Samhita', on which the Aranyagana Samans are sung.
• The Atharvaveda has no surviving Aranyaka, though the Gopatha Brahmana is regarded as its Aranyaka, a remnant of a larger,
lost Atharva (Paippalada) Brahmana.
• The major contents of the aranykas are
theosophy(bramhavidhya),meditation(upasana),and knowledge of
breath(pranvidhya).they describe the secret meanin of sacrifice and
concept of brahma as well.the creation of the universe,poer of
almighty ,om,the cycle of birth and rebirth
brahmanas
• The Brahmanas (/ˈbrɑːmənəz/; Sanskrit: ब्राह्मणम्, Brāhmaṇam) are Vedic śruti works attached to the
Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or
classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within each Veda, which explain and instruct on the performance
of Vedic rituals (in which the related Samhitas are recited). In addition to explaining the symbolism and
meaning of the Samhitas, Each Veda has one or more of its own Brahmanas, and each Brahmana is
generally associated with a particular Shakha or Vedic school. Less than twenty Brahmanas are currently
extant, as most have been lost or destroyed. Brahmana (or Brāhmaṇam, Sanskrit: ब्राह्मणम्) can be loosely
translated as 'explanations of sacred knowledge or doctrine' or 'Brahmanical explanationM. Haug states
that etymologically, 'the word ['Brahmana' or 'Brahmanam'] is derived from brahman which properly
signifies the Brahma priest who must know all Vedas, The Brahmanas are particularly noted for their
instructions on the proper performance of rituals, as well as explanations on the symbolic importance of
sacred words and ritual actions. The content of the Brahmanas are divided into two main sections:
• Vidhi: It comprises the instructions and warnings related to the performance of particular rituals.
• Arthavada: It comprises the explanatory commentaries in relation to the Mantras and particular rituals.
• The utmost importance is given to the Vidhi.
upanishad
• Upanishad, also spelled Upanisad, Sanskrit Upaniṣad (“Connection”), one of four genres of texts that
together constitute each of the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of most Hindu traditions. Each of the four
Vedas—the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda—consists of a Samhita (a “collection” of
hymns or sacred formulas); a liturgical prose exposition called a Brahmana; and two appendices to the
Brahmana—an Aranyaka (“Book of the Wilderness”), which contains esoteric doctrines meant to be
studied by the initiated in the forest or some other remote place, and an Upanishad, which speculates
about the ontological connection between humanity and the cosmos. Around 108 Upanishads are known,
of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as
• the principal or main (mukhya) Upanishads.[11][12] The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the
concluding part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas[13] and were, for centuries, memorized by each
generation and passed down orally. The Sanskrit term Upaniṣad originally meant “connection” or
“equivalence,[27] but came to be understood as "sitting near a teacher,"[27] from upa "by" and ni-ṣad "sit
down",[28] "sitting down near", referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving
spiritual knowledge.(Gurumukh)[29The central idea of the Upanishads is that the consciousness of every
living being is the Atman or Self, sometimes loosely translated as soul, a primordial unit of consciousness
independent of and ultimately unaffected by the body; and furthermore that the Atman at its root is
identical with Brahman, the Universal Consciousness.
vedas
• Tradition has it that humans did not compose the revered
compositions of the Vedas, but that God taught the Vedic hymns to
the sages, who then handed them down through generations by word
of mouth
Upaveda

/
upaveda
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• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shruti
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aruti
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aranyaka#Further_reading
• https://vedicheritage.gov.in/aranyakas/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmana
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Upanishad
• https://www.quora.com/What-are-Upanishads-and-what-do-they-contain
• https://www.learnreligions.com/what-are-vedas-1769572#toc-structure-of-the-vedas
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda
• timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/desires-of-a-modern-indian/summarising-the-knowledge-in-rigveda/
• https://prepp.in/news/e-492-sama-veda-vedas-of-ancient-india-ancient-india-history-notes
RIGVEDA
• The Rigveda or Rig Veda (Sanskrit: ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, from ṛc "praise"[2] and veda "knowledge") is an
ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (sūktas). It is one of the four sacred canonical
Hindu texts (śruti) known as the Vedas. The Rigveda is the oldest known Vedic Sanskrit text.[6] Its
early layers are among the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language.[7][note 2] The sounds
and texts of the Rigveda have been orally transmitted since the 2nd millennium BCE. The text is
layered, consisting of the Samhita, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. The Rigveda
Samhita is the core text and is a collection of 10 books (maṇḍalas) with 1,028 hymns (sūktas) in
about 10,600 verses (called ṛc, eponymous of the name Rigveda). In the eight books – Books 2
through 9 – that were composed the earliest, the hymns predominantly discuss cosmology, rites,
and rituals and praise deities. The text is organized in ten "books", or maṇḍalas ("circles"), of
varying age and length.[55] The "family books", mandalas 2–7, are the oldest part of
the Rigveda and the shortest books; they are arranged by length (decreasing length of hymns per
book) and account for 38% of the text[The eighth and ninth mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed
age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. The ninth mandala is entirely dedicated to Soma and
the Soma ritual. The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest; they are also the longest
books, of 191 suktas each, accounting for 37% of the text.
• The main ritual activity referred to in the Rigveda is the soma sacrifice. Soma was a hallucinogenic
beverage prepared from a now-unknown plant; it has been suggested that the plant was a
mushroom and that later another plant was substituted for that agaric fungus, which had become
difficult to obtain. . There is a documentation of the stories of different Hindu gods and goddesses
including Surya, Indra, Rudra, Vayu, Agni, Vishnu, and other Hindu deities. These are the oldest
forms of documentation that form a foundation for the Hindu beliefs. . There is a documentation
of the stories of different Hindu gods and goddesses including Surya, Indra, Rudra, Vayu, Agni,
Vishnu, and other Hindu deities. These are the oldest forms of documentation that form a
foundation for the Hindu beliefs.
Knowlegde obtained from riveda
• The Rigveda offers no direct evidence of social or political systems in the Vedic era, whether ordinary or elite.[36]
Only hints such as cattle raising and horse racing are discernible, and the text offers very general ideas about the
ancient Indian society. There is no evidence, state Jamison and Brereton, of any elaborate, pervasive or structured
caste system.[36] Social stratification seems embryonic, then and later a social ideal rather than a social reality.[36] The
society was semi-nomadic and pastoral with evidence of agriculture since hymns mention plow and celebrate
agricultural divinities.[37] There was division of labor and a complementary relationship between kings and poet-
priests but no discussion of a relative status of social classes.[36] Women in the Rigveda appear disproportionately as
speakers in dialogue hymns, both as mythical or divine Indrani, Apsaras Urvasi, or Yami, as well as Apāla Ātreyī (RV
8.91), Godhā (RV 10.134.6), Ghoṣā Kākṣīvatī (RV 10.39.40), Romaśā (RV 1.126.7), Lopāmudrā (RV 1.179.1–2),
Viśvavārā Ātreyī (RV 5.28), Śacī Paulomī (RV 10.159), Śaśvatī Āṅgirasī (RV 8.1.34). The women of the Rigveda are
quite outspoken and appear more sexually confident than men, in the text.[36] Elaborate and aesthetic hymns on
wedding suggest rites of passage had developed during the Rigvedic period.[36] There is little evidence of dowry and
no evidence of sati in it or related Vedic texts.[38]
• The Rigvedic hymns mention rice and porridge, in hymns such as 8.83, 8.70, 8.77 and 1.61 in some versions of the
text;[39] however, there is no discussion of rice cultivation.[37] The term áyas (metal) occurs in the Rigveda, but it is
unclear which metal it was.[40] Iron is not mentioned in Rigveda, something scholars have used to help
date Rigveda to have been composed before 1000 BCE.[41] Hymn 5.63 mentions "metal cloaked in gold", suggesting
metal working had progressed in the Vedic culture.[42]
Samveda
• The Samaveda (Sanskrit: सामवेद, romanized: sāmaveda, from sāman "song" and veda "knowledge"), is
the Veda of melodies and chants.[4] It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, and part of the scriptures of
Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a liturgical text which consists of 1,875 verses. All but 75 verses
have been taken from the Rigveda.[5] Three recensions of the Samaveda have survived, and variant
manuscripts of the Veda have been found in various parts of India.[6][7] While its earliest parts are
believed to date from as early as the Rigvedic period, the existing compilation dates from the post-
Rigvedic Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit, which may be around the 6th century BCE given that it post-
dates the later Upanishads.[8] While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rigvedic
period, the existing compilation dates from the post-Rigvedic Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit, which
may be around the 6th century BCE given that it post-dates the later Upanishads.[8] The Samaveda text
contains notated melodies, and these are probably the world's oldest surviving ones.[14] The musical
notation is written usually immediately above, sometimes within, the line of Samaveda text, either in
syllabic or a numerical form depending on the Samavedic Sakha (school).[17The Samaveda comprises
two major parts. The first part include four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three
verse "books" (ārcika, आर्चिक).[5] A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in the arcika books.[]
Just like Rigveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with Agni and Indra hymns but shift to
abstract speculations and philosophy, and their meters too shifts in a descending order.[5] The later
sections of the Samaveda, states Witzel, have least deviation from substance of hymns they derive
from Rigveda into songs.[5] The Samaveda consists of 1,549 unique verses, taken almost entirely from
Rigveda, except for 75 verses.[5][20] The largest number of verse come from Books 9 and 8 of the Rig
Veda.[21] Some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated more than once. Including these repetitions, there
are a total of 1,875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.[22]
samved
• Samaveda samhita is not meant to be read as a text, it is like a musical score sheet that must be heard.[The "Sama
Veda" is an ancient Hindu text and one of Hinduism's four primary Vedas.
• It is also known as the "Book of Song," "Veda of Chants," or even "Yoga of Song." It is a compilation of tunes and
chants. It's essentially the "Rig Veda" words set to music.
• The words of the Samaveda are all designed to be repeated at the rituals of the Soma-sacrifice and processes derived
from it, and the Samaveda is compiled purely for ritual use.
• Samaveda was written during 1200-800 BCE. This Veda also has something to do with public worship.
• Chandogya Upanishad and Kena Upanishad are two Upanishads found in Samaveda.
• The Samaveda is the foundation for Indian classical music and dance.
• It is regarded as a repository for lovely chants.
• It has fewer verses than the Rigveda, but its texts are longer.
• The text of the Samaveda has three recensions: Kauthuma, Raayaniya, and Jaimaniya.
• The Samaveda, like other Vedas, has numerous layers of text, the oldest of which is the Samhita and the youngest of
which is the Upanishads.
• Samaveda Samhita is not intended to be read as a text; rather, it is intended to be listened to as a musical score
sheet.
samved
• The Samaveda is divided into two sections: Part I has Gana melodies, while Part II
contains Archika, a three-verse book.
• A verse in the arcika books relates to a tune in the song books.
• The Gana collection is separated into Gramageya and Aranyageya sections,
whereas the Arcika section is split into Purvarcika and Uttararcika sections.
• The Purvarcika section of the book has 585 single-stanza poems and is structured
by deities, whereas the Uttararcika part is organised by rites.
• Gramageya melodies are for public recitations, and Aranya Gaya melodies are for
solitary contemplative use, such as in a forest alone.
• The Purvarcika collection was usually sung to melodies defined in the Gramageya-
Gnas index, and the criteria for how the verses mapped to verses were detailed in
Sanskrit writings like the Puspasutra.
 Yajurveda
• The Yajurveda (Sanskrit: यजुर्वेद, yajurveda, from yajus meaning "worship",[3] and veda meaning
"knowledge") is the Veda primarily of prose mantras for worship rituals.[4] An ancient Vedic
Sanskrit text, it is a compilation of ritual-offering formulas that were said by a priest while an
individual performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire.[4] Yajurveda is one of the
four Vedas, and one of the scriptures of Hinduism. The exact century of Yajurveda's composition
is unknown, and estimated by Witzel to be between 1200 and 800 BCE, contemporaneous with
Samaveda and Atharvaveda. The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into two – the "black" or "dark"
(Krishna) Yajurveda and the "white" or "bright" (Shukla) Yajurveda. The term "black" implies "the
un-arranged, unclear, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" which
implies the "well arranged, clear" Yajurveda.[5] The black Yajurveda has survived in four
recensions, while two recensions of white Yajurveda have survived into the modern times.[6] The
earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda samhita includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct
yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda.[7][8] The Yajurveda text includes
Shukla Yajurveda of which about 16 recensions are known, while the Krishna Yajurveda may have
had as many as 86 recensions.[6] Only two recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda have survived,
Madhyandina and Kanva, and others are known by name only because they are mentioned in
other texts. These two recensions are nearly the same, except for a few differences.[6] In contrast
to Shukla Yajurveda, the four surviving recensions of Krishna Yajurveda are very different versions.
[6]
yajurved
• Yajurveda was composed between 1200 and 800 BCE, roughly contemporaneous with the Samaveda and Atharvaveda.
• The Yajurveda is the second of the four Vedas, or religious texts. It is claimed to have sprouted from Brahm's (the creator's) southern face.
• It is also known as Adhvaryuveda, since it is primarily used in the performance of Vedic sacrifices, where the Adhvaryu is the principal priest
who oversees the entire sacrifice.
• Its mantras are referred to as yajus.
• Yajus contains these mantras. The earliest and oldest stratum of the Yajurveda samhita has around 1,875 poems that are unique yet
borrowed and built on the basis of Rigvedic verses.
• The Satapatha Brahmana, one of the greatest Brahmana manuscripts in the Vedic collection, is found in the intermediate stratum.
• The basic Upanishads, which have influenced numerous schools of Hindu thought, are found in the youngest layer of Yajurveda literature.
• The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Isha Upanishad, Taittiriya Upanishad, Katha Upanishad, Shvetashvatara Upanishad, and Maitri
Upanishad are among them.
• Yajurveda contains mainly the rules and regulations of Yajnas and Havanas. The rules & regulations of Yajurveda are believed to be the last
ones to be composed. They are said to have been composed in the early centuries of the first millennium to the second millennium BC. The
Yajurveda provides valuable formation about the social and religious life of the Aryans. Besides, it also gives a glimpse of the Varna system
of that time. Yajurveda contains mantras for Yajnas & their description. The scripture also provides valuable information about various
yajnas, some of them are Agnihotra, Ashwamedha, Vajpayee, Somayagna, Rajasuya, and Agnichayan Adhi. The white Yajur Veda deals
with prayers and specific instructions for devotional sacrifices, whereas the black Yajur Veda deals with sacrificial rituals.
Yajurved

• Krishna (Black/Dark) and Shukla (White/Bright) are the two sorts of Yajurveda.
• The Shukla Yajurveda has roughly 16 recensions, but the Krishna Yajurveda may have had as many as 86 recensions, according to the Yajurveda
text.
• Only the Madhyandina and Kanva recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda have survived, while others are only known by name because they are
mentioned in other works.
• Except for a few minor variations, these two recensions are essentially identical.
• The four surviving recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda, in contrast to the Shukla Yajurveda, are quite diverse variations.
• The verses of the Krishna Yajurveda are disorganized, confusing, and haphazard.
• The Krishna Yajurveda is divided into four recensions:
• Taittirya samhita,
• Maitrayani samhita,
• Kathaka samhita,
• Kapisthala samhita.
• The Vayu Purana mentions a total of eighty-six recensions, but the great majority of these are thought to be lost.
• Unlike the Shukla Yajurveda, the Krishna Yajurveda's Samhita had both mantras and explanatory text.
• Shukla Yajurveda features verses that are well-organized and easy to understand.
• The Vajasaneyi Samhita is a samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda. The name Vajasaneyi comes from Vajasaneyi, Yajnavalkya's patronymic and the
Vajasaneyi branch's founder.
Atharvaved

• The Atharva Veda (Sanskrit: अथर्ववेदः, Atharvavedaḥ from atharvāṇas and veda, meaning "knowledge")
or Atharvana Veda (Sanskrit: अथर्वणवेदः, Atharvaṇavedaḥ is the "knowledge storehouse of atharvāṇas, the
procedures for everyday life".[3] The text is the fourth Veda, and is a late addition to the Vedic scriptures
of Hinduism.[4][5][6]
• The language of the Atharvaveda is different from Rigvedic Sanskrit, preserving pre-Vedic Indo-
European archaisms.[7][6] It is a collection of 730 hymns with about 6,000 mantras, divided into 20 books.[
The language of the Atharvaveda is different from Rigvedic Sanskrit, preserving pre-Vedic Indo-
European archaisms.[7][6] It is a collection of 730 hymns with about 6,000 mantras, divided into 20 books.
[6]
About a sixth of the Atharvaveda texts adapts verses from the Rigveda, and except for Books 15 and
16, the text is mainly in verse deploying a diversity of Vedic meters.[6] Two different recensions of the
text – the Paippalāda and the Śaunakīya – have survived into modern times.[8The Atharvaveda is
sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas",[3] a description considered incorrect by other scholars.
[9]
In contrast to the 'hieratic religion' of the other three Vedas, the Atharvaveda is said to represent a
'popular religion', incorporating not only formulas for magic, but also the daily rituals for initiation into
learning (upanayana), marriage and funerals. Royal rituals and the duties of the court priests are also
included in the Atharvaveda.[10]
Atharvaved

• The Atharvaveda Samhita originally was organized into 18 books (Kāṇḍas), and the last two were
added later.[34] These books are arranged neither by subject nor by authors (as is the case with the
other Vedas), but by the length of the hymns.[30] Each book generally has hymns of about a similar
number of verses, and the surviving manuscripts label the book with the shortest hymns as Book 1,
and then in an increasing order (a few manuscripts do the opposite). Most of the hymns are poetic
and set to different meters, but about a sixth of the book is prose.[30]
• Most of the hymns of Atharvaveda are unique to it, except for the one sixth of its hymns that it
borrows from the Rigveda, primarily from its 10th mandala.[30][34] The 19th book was a supplement
of a similar nature, likely of new compositions and was added later.[30] The 143 hymns of the 20th
book of Atharvaveda Samhita is almost entirely borrowed from the Rigveda.[35]
• The hymns of Atharvaveda cover a motley of topics, across its twenty books. Roughly, the first
seven books focus primarily on magical poems for all sorts of healing and sorcery, and Michael
Witzel states these are reminiscent of Germanic and Hittite sorcery stanzas, and may likely be the
oldest section.[36] Books 8 to 12 are speculations of a variety of topics, while Books 13 to 18 tend to
be about life cycle rites of passage rituals.[36]
• The Atharvaveda Samhita contains hymns many of which were charms, magic spells and
incantations meant to be pronounced by the person who seeks some benefit, or more often by a
sorcerer who would say it on his or her behalf.[34] The most frequent goal of these hymns, charms,
and spells were long life of a loved one or recovery from some illness. In these cases, the affected
would be given substances such as a plant (leaf, seed, root) and an amulet.[34] Some magic spells
were for soldiers going to war with the goal of defeating the enemy, others for anxious lovers
seeking to remove rivals or to attract the lover who is less than interested, some for success at a
sporting event, in economic activity, for bounty of cattle and crops, or removal of petty pest
bothering a household.[34][42][43] Some hymns were not about magic spells and charms, but prayer
qua prayer and philosophical speculations.[44Numerous hymns of the Atharvaveda are prayers and
incantations wishing a child or loved one to get over some sickness and become healthy again,
along with comforting the family members. The Vedic era assumption was that diseases are
caused by evil spirits, external beings or demonic forces who enter the body of a victim to cause
sickness.[49] Hymn 5.21 of the Paippalāda edition of the text, for example, states,
• Numerous hymns of the Atharvaveda are prayers and incantations wishing a child or loved one to
get over some sickness and become healthy again, along with comforting the family members.
The Vedic era assumption was that diseases are caused by evil spirits, external beings or demonic
forces who enter the body of a victim to cause sickness.[49] Hymn 5.21 of the Paippalāda edition of
the text, for example, states,
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atharvaveda#Surgical_and_medical_treatment
atharvaved
• The Atharva Veda is a Hindu holy scripture and one of the four Vedas, frequently referred to as the "fourth Veda."
• It was created between 1000 and 800 BCE.
• This Veda enumerates all of life's routines in great detail.
• There are 730 hymns/suktas, 6000 mantras, and 20 volumes in the collection.
• Paippalada and Saunakiya are two Atharvaveda recensions that have survived.
• It comprises three fundamental Upanishads – Mundaka Upanishad, Mandukya Upanishad, and Prashna Upanishad – and is known as a
Veda of magical formulae.
• The hymns in each of the 20 books are grouped according to their duration.
• Unlike Samaveda, whose hymns are drawn from the Rigveda, Atharvaveda hymns are original, with the exception of a handful.
• This Veda comprises hymns, many of which were charms and magic spells intended to be uttered by the individual seeking benefit or,
more commonly, by a sorcerer on his or her behalf.
• According to legend, the Atharva Veda was produced primarily by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the
Angirasa, therefore the name Atharva Angirasa.
• Only three Vedas were first accepted by ancient Indian tradition.
• The songs and conventional folk practises of the Atharvanas were slowly recognised as another Veda, considerably later than the first
three, by both orthodox and heterodox Indian philosophical traditions.
• For example, the early Buddhist Nikaya scriptures do not acknowledge Atharvaveda as the fourth Veda, and only mention three Vedas.
• The Atharvaveda is also known as the 'Brahmaveda,' or the Veda of Brahma priests, because of his affiliation.
THE GREAT EPICS
• Itihasa (Sanskrit: इतिहास, lit. 'traditional accounts of past events')[1] refers to the collection of written
descriptions of important events in Hinduism. It includes the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Ramayana.
The Mahabharata includes the story of the Kurukshetra War and preserves the traditions of the Lunar dynasty
in the form of embedded tales.. The Ramayana contains the story of Rama and is incidentally related to the
legends of the Solar dynasty. A story is considered to be itihasa only when the author of the story has himself
witnessed or is part of the story.[citation needed ] Vyasa, who wrote the Mahabharata, is himself a character in the
story. Similarly, Valmiki, who wrote the Ramayana, was also a characThe Sanskrit term itihāsa (इतिहास) was
derived from the phrase iti ha āsa इति ह आस, which means "so indeed it was"ter in the story. Main article:
Hindu units of time
• According to the Hindu texts, time is cyclic. The history of mankind is divided into four ages—Satya Yuga, Treta
Yuga, Dvapara Yuga and Kali Yuga—collectively forming one Maha Yuga. Seventy-one Maha Yugas form a
Manvantara ("age of Manu"), a period of time over which a "Manu" presides. For the duration of his period,
each Manu is the archetypal first man, the progenitor of humanity, and also the first king and lawgiver. Along
with a Manu, every Manvantara also has its own set of Indra, gods and the seven sages. Fourteen Manus
reign in Kalpa, (a single day in the life of) Brahma), an equivalent of 1,000 Maha Yugas, at the end of which,
the creation is destroyed and is followed by a Pralaya (dissolution) of equal length. The creation starts again,
in the next Kalpa in an endless cycle of creations and dissolutions
Bibliography 2
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yajurveda#:~:text=An%20ancient%20Vedic%20Sanskrit%20text,of%20the%20s
criptures%20of%20Hinduism
.
• https://prepp.in/news/e-492-yajur-veda-vedas-of-ancient-india-ancient-india-history-notes
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itihasa
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versions_of_the_Ramayana#Regional_versions
• https://www.aubank.in/blogs/lessons-we-can-learn-from-ramayana
• Mahabharata - Wikipedia en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Mahabharata
• https://vedicheritage.gov.in/upaveda/
ramayana
• The epic, traditionally ascribed to the Maharishi Valmiki, narrates the life of Rama, a legendary prince of
Ayodhya in the kingdom of Kosala. The epic follows his fourteen-year exile to the forest urged by his
father King Dasharatha, on the request of Rama's stepmother Kaikeyi; his travels across forests in the
Indian subcontinent with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana, the kidnapping of Sita by Ravana – the
king of Lanka, that resulted in war; and Rama's eventual return to Ayodhya to be crowned king amidst
jubilation and celebrationThe scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to
4th centuries BCE,[5][6] and later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE,[7] although original date of
composition is unknown. It is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature and consists of nearly
24,000 verses (mostly set in the Shloka/Anustubh meter), divided into seven Khanda (parts) the first and
the seventh being later additions.[8] It belongs to the genre of Itihasa, narratives of past events
(purāvṛtta), interspersed with teachings on the goals of human life. The name Rāmāyaṇa is composed of
two words, Rāma and ayaṇa. Rāma, the name of the central figure of the epic, has two contextual
meanings. In the Atharvaveda, it means 'dark, dark-coloured, black' and is related to the word rātri which
means 'darkness or stillness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in the Mahabharata, is
'pleasing, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful'.[14][15] The word ayana means travel or journey.
Thus, Rāmāyaṇa means "Rama's progress", with ayana altered to ayaṇa due to the Sanskrit grammar
rule of internal sandhi.[16][17]
• The genre also includes teachings on the goals of human life. It depicts the duties of relationships,
portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal
husband, and the ideal king.In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana is an epic poem of some
24,000 verses, divided into seven kāṇḍas (Bālakāṇḍa, Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa,
Kiṣkindakāṇḍa, Sundarākāṇḍa, Yuddhakāṇḍa, Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters). n
terms of narrative time, the action of the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata. Scholarly
estimates for the earliest stage of the available text range from the 7th to 4th centuries Books
two to six are the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books (Bala Kanda and Uttara
Kanda, respectively) seem to be later additions.BCE,[6][5] with later stages extending up to the 3rd
entury CE.[
ramayana
• Bihar – In Maithili language popular in the Mithila region of present Bihar, Chanda Jha (1831–1907)'s Mithila Bhasha Ramayana [21] Lal
Das (1856–1921)'s Mithilabhasha Ramayana – Rameshwar Charit Mithila Ramayan – Lal Das [22] Ramlochan Sharan (1889–1971)'s
Ramayana
• Goa – Ramayanu written by Krishnadasa Shama in the 15th century in Kardalipura, Goa in Konkani, manuscripts found in Portugal.[23][24]
• Gujarat - The Tulsi-Krta Ramayana is a Gujarati adaptation of Tulsidas' Ramcharitamanas in the 17th century, by the poet Premanand
Swami. The Giradhara Ramayana is also a prominent retelling of Ramayana in Gujarati by the 18th-century poet Giradhara Gosvami.
• Jammu and Kashmir – The Kashmiri Ramavatara Charita was written in the 19th century.
• Karnataka – The Classical Kannada versions of the Ramayana – the Kumudendu Ramayana(a Jain version), written in the 13th century
and the Kumara-Valmiki Torave Ramayana, written in the 16th century. There is another version titled Ramachandra Charita
Purana written by Nagachandra during the 12th century (1149 CE). Two prose works were written by Nanadalike Lakshminarayana
('Muddanna') entitled Adbhuta Ramayana (1895) and Ramaswamedham (1898).
• Kerala – The earliest known extant poetic work in Malayalam is Ramacharitam, based on Yuddha Kanda written by Cheeraman 12th
century. The Kannassa Ramayanam written by Niranam Rama Panicker in the 14th century, Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu written by
Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan in the 16th century (The most popular one) and "Mappila Ramayanam." among the Muslims.[25]
• Maharashtra – The Marathi Bhavartha Ramayana written by Sant Eknath in the 16th century. There is also a reference of a Ramayana
being translated into old Marathi during the 12th or 13th century.
• Odisha – The Jagamohana Ramayana or Dandi Ramayana composed by Balarama Dasa in early 16th century is the prevalent version in
Odisha.[26] Another adaptation Vilanka Ramayana was written as a poem by Sarala Das in 15th century. After that Raghunath Bhanja of
Gumusar wrote Raghunath Vilasa, and his grandson poet Upendra Bhanja wrote Baidehisha Vilasa in 17th century. Bisi
Ramayana or Bichitra Ramayana written by Biswanath Khuntia is the most popular in stage performances as Ramleela. The Ramkatha is
found in the folk and tribal traditions of Odisha.
• Uttar Pradesh (Awadh) – The Ramcharitmanas was written by Goswami Tulsidas in the 16th century.
Ramayana

• Buddhism - Dasarata Jataka. This version is notable for regarding Rama as

a bodhisattva (on the path to Buddhahood) and depicting him and Sita as
siblings who marry.[31] As the Buddha is supposed to have come from the
Ikshvaku clan (of Rama) this symbolised his dynastic merits.[citation needed]
• Jainism - Paumachariyam, the most influential among the Jain versions is
written as a polemic against Sanskrit versions asserting that all characters
in the Ramayana were mere mortals who engaged in conflict over moral
issues. The only superhuman feat mentioned is Ravana's ability to fly
through the clouds (meghavahana). All characters are depicted as Jains
and the Rama, Sita and Lakshmana visit Jain pilgrimage sites rather than
ashrams (as in Valmiki ramayana) during their stay in the forest.
 teaching
•
Value Unity and Relationships – More Than Greed, Pride and Power
• Lord Rama valued all relationships. He willingly chose to spend 14 years in a forest to protect his father’s much-esteemed honor. During this time, Laxman – his half-brother – even accompanied him
to vanvas to support him.
• King Dashratha had three wives and four sons; and all of them loved each other immensely. Their love was so pure that their hearts were united even when they were physically apart.
• Bharat, another brother of Lord Ram who was given the mighty throne, never considered himself a king. Instead, he waited for Lord Rama to return home and handed the kingdom back to him.
•
• Lesson: Always stand together as a family.The fruits of togetherness will give you the power to sail through the worst storms.Every relationship is an opportunity for us to rise above greed, anger and
power.If we hold love higher than everything else, our value and respect for life increases automatically.Moreover, it purifies our soul and sets us on the path to good karma.
•
• Embrace All – Irrespective of Caste, Creed or Colour
• Lord Rama was so humble and kind that he treated everyone equally. He even readily ate the fruits nibbled by Sabari – a poor old woman who had nothing much to offer but pure love.
•
• Lesson: Love and respect everyone. Do not discriminate anyone on the basis of caste, creed, colour or status.
•
• Stay Away from Negative People
• The third wife of Dashratha, Queen Kaikeyi, loved Rama more than her own son Bharat. However, her handmaiden, Manthara poisoned her mind with negativity. Manthara convinced Kaikeyi to send Rama
into exile and insisted on Bharat being crowned as the king.
•
• Lesson: Guard yourself against vicious counsel and stay away from negative people. A negative mind can easily brainwash all the good inside you.
•
• Forgiveness Trumps Revenge
• When Ravana learned that Laxman has insulted his sister Surpanakha, he went to seek vengeance and abducted Sita. However, this feeling of revenge cost him his life.
• On the other hand, Lord Rama and Sita were forgiving and kind to all. They even granted forgiveness to Kaikeyi, Rama's stepmother, the one responsible for sending him into exile.
•
• Lesson: Be forgiving in nature. Anger and revenge do not bring any good; they do not allow us to move on to better things.
•
• Victory of Good over Evil
• Ravana was highly intellectual, but a cruel and arrogant king. He kidnaps Lord Rama‘s wife, Sita, to claim revenge from him and his brother Laxman for having cut off the nose of his sister Surpanakha.
However, in the end, Lord Rama wins the battle and rescues Sita.
•
• Lesson: No matter how bad the circumstances be in life, good will always prevail over evil.
•
• In today’s modern life, many of us have stopped believing in the ideals laid out by our venerated scriptures. However, in reality, these lessons are truly enlightening and important to lead a life by good
 Mahabharata
• Mahābhārata (/məˌhɑːˈbɑːrətə, ˌmɑːhə-/ mə-HAH-BAR-ə-tə, MAH-hə-;[1][2][3][4] Sanskrit
: महाभारतम्, Mahābhāratam, pronounced [mɐɦaːˈbʱaːrɐt̪ɐm]) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India
in Hinduism, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa.[5] It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the
Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and the Pāṇḍava princes and their successors. Traditionally, the
authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa. There have been many attempts to unravel its historical
growth and compositional layers. The bulk of the Mahābhārata was probably compiled between the 3rd century
BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.[6][7] The text
probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period (c. 4th century CE).[8][9] The Mahābhārata is the longest
epic poem known and has been described as "the longest poem ever written".[10][11] Its longest version consists of
over 100,000 śloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. At
about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey
combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa.[12][13] The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage
Vyāsa, who is also a major character in the epic. Vyāsa described it as being itihāsa (transl. history). He also
describes the Guru–shishya tradition, which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times.The
first section of the Mahābhārata states that it was Ganesha who wrote down the text to Vyasa's dictation, but this
is regarded by scholars as a later interpolation to the epic and the "Critical Edition" doesn't include Ganesha at all.
[16]
The epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian
religious and non-religious works. It is first recited at Takshashila by the sage Vaiśampāyana,[17][18] a disciple of
Vyāsa, to the King Janamejaya who was the great-grandson of the Pāṇḍava prince Arjuna. The story is then recited
again by a professional storyteller named Ugraśrava Sauti, many years later, to an assemblage of sages performing
 mahabharata
• Vyasa, himself a character in the epic, composed it; as, according to tradition, he dictated the verses and Ganesha
wrote them down.