Mustafa Jarrar: Lecture Notes in Discrete Mathematics.

Birzeit University, Palestine, 2015

Relations

8.1. Introduction to Relations

8.2 Properties of Relations
8.3 Equivalence Relations

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Acknowledgement:
This lecture is based on (but not limited to) to chapter 8 in “Discrete Mathematics with Applications
by Susanna S. Epp (3rd Edition)”.

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 Mustafa Jarrar: Lecture Notes in Discrete Mathematics.
Birzeit University, Palestine, 2015

Relations
8.2 Properties of Relations

In this lecture:
 Part 1: Properties: Reflexivity, Symmetry, Transitivity

 Part 2: Proving Properties of Relations

 Part 3: Transitive Closure

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 Reflexivity ‫تناظر‬

R is Reflexive: Each element is related to itself.

‫ وكل عنصر في المجموعة مرتبط بنفسه‬،‫عالقة ثنائية على مجموعة ما‬
.‫في إطار هذه العالقة‬
R is not reflexive: there is an element x in A
such that x R x [that is, such that ( x , x ) ∉ R ] .

Examples:
Likes? MemberOf? BrotherOf?
LocatedIn? PartOf? SonOf?
Kills? SubSetOf? FatherOf?
FreindOf? SameAS? RelativeOf?
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 Symmetry ‫تماثل‬

R is Symmetric: If any one element is related to any

other element, then the second is related to the first.

R is not Symmetric: there are elements x and y in A

such that x R y but y R x [that is, such that ( x , y ) ∈ R
but (y,x) ∉ R].

Examples:
Likes? MemberOf? BrotherOf?
LocatedIn? PartOf? SonOf?
Kills? SubSetOf? FatherOf?
FreindOf? SameAS? RelativeOf?
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 Transitivity ‫تعدي‬

R is Transitive: If any one element is related to a

second and that second element is related to a third,
then the first element is related to the third.
R is not transitive: there are elements x,y and z in A
such that xRy and yRz but x R z [that is, such that
(x,y) ∊ R and (y,z) ∊R but (x , z) ∉ R ] .
Examples:
Likes? MemberOf? BrotherOf?
LocatedIn? PartOf? SonOf?
Kills? SubSetOf? FatherOf?
FreindOf? SameAS? RelativeOf?
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 Example
Let A = {2,3,4,6,7,9} and define a relation R on A as:

For all x, y ∈ A, xRy ⇔ 3|(x−y).

2

3
4

9
7 6

Is R Reflexive?✓ Symmetric?✓ Transitive? ✓

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 Exercise
Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and define relation R on A as:
R = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 3), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 3)}

Is R Reflexive?  Symmetric?  Transitive?

0 1

3 2

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 Exercise
Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and define relation R on A as:
R = {(0, 0), (0, 2), (0, 3), (2, 3)}

Is R Reflexive?  Symmetric?  Transitive? 

0 1

3 2

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 Exercise
Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and define relation R on A as:
R ={(0,1),(2,3)}

Is R Reflexive?  Symmetric?  Transitive? 

0 1

3 2

Remark that the transitivity condition is vacuously true for T . To see this,
observe that the transitivity condition says that
∀x,y,z∈A, if [(x,y)∈T ∧ (y,z)∈T] then [(x,z)∈T]
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 Mustafa Jarrar: Lecture Notes in Discrete Mathematics.
Birzeit University, Palestine, 2015

Relations
8.2 Properties of Relations

In this lecture:
 Part 1: Properties: Reflexivity, Symmetry, Transitivity

Part 2: Proving Properties of Relations

 Part 3: Transitive Closure
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Proving Properties on Relations on Infinite Sets

Until now we discussed relation on Finite Sets

Next, we discussed relation on infinite Sets

To prove a relation is reflexive, symmetric, or transitive, first

write down what is to be proved, in First Order Logic.

For instance, for symmetry

∀x, y ∈ A, if x R y then y R x.

Then use direct methods of proving

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 Properties of Equality
Define a relation R on R (the set of all real numbers) as follows:
For all real numbers x and y. x R y ⇔ x = y.

Is R Reflexive? Symmetric? Transitive?

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 Properties of Less Than
Define a relation R on R (the set of all real numbers) as follows:
For all x, y ∈ R, x R y ⇔ x < y.

Is R Reflexive? Symmetric? Transitive?

Solution
R is not reflexive: R is reflexive if, and only if, ∀x ∈ R, x R x. By definition of R,
this means that ∀x ∈R,x <x. But this is false: ∃x ∈R such that x ≮x. As a
counterexample, let x = 0 and note that 0 ≮ 0. Hence R is not reflexive.
R is not symmetric: R is symmetric if, and only if, ∀x, y ∈ R, if x R y then y R x.
By definition of R, this means that ∀x, y ∈ R, if x < y then y < x. But this is false:
∃x, y ∈ R such that x < y and y ≮ x. As a counterexample, let x = 0 and y = 1 and
note that 0 < 1 but 1 ≮ 0. Hence R is not symmetric.
R is transitive: R is transitive if, and only if, for all x, y, z ∈ R, if x R y and y R z
then x R z. By definition of R, this means that for all x, y, z ∈ R, if x < y and y < z,
then x < z. But this statement is true by the transitive law of order for real numbers
(Appendix A, T18). Hence R is transitive.
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 Properties of Congruence Modulo 3
Define a relation T on Z (the set of all integers) as follows: For
all integers m and n, m T n ⇔ 3|(m−n).

Is R Reflexive? Symmetric? Transitive?

For all m∈Z, 3|(m−m).

Suppose m is a particular but arbitrarily chosen integer.

[We must show that m T m.]
Now, m−m = 0.
But 3 | 0 since 0 = 3·0.
Hence 3|(m−m).
Thus, by definition of T, mT m
[as was to be shown].

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 Properties of Congruence Modulo 3
Define a relation T on Z (the set of all integers) as follows: For
all integers m and n, m T n ⇔ 3|(m−n).

Is R Reflexive? Symmetric? Transitive?

For all m, n∈ Z, if 3|(m−n) then 3|(n−m).

Suppose m and n are particular but arbitrarily chosen integers
that satisfy the condition m T n.
[We must show that n T m.]
By definition of T , since m T n then 3 | (m − n). By definition of
“divides,” this means that m − n = 3k, for some integer k.
Multiplying both sides by −1 gives n − m = 3(−k). Since −k is an
integer, this equation shows that 3 | (n − m). Hence, by definition
of T , n T m
[as was to be shown].
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 Properties of Congruence Modulo 3
Define a relation T on Z (the set of all integers) as follows: For
all integers m and n, m T n ⇔ 3|(m−n).

Is R Reflexive? Symmetric? Transitive?

For all m, n∈Z, if 3|(m−n) and 3|(n−p) then 3|(m−p).
Suppose m, n, and p are particular but arbitrarily chosen
integers that satisfy the condition m T n and n T p. [We must
show that m T p.] By definition of T, since m T n and n T p,
then 3|(m−n) and 3|(n−p). By definition of “divides,” this
means that m − n = 3r and n − p = 3s, for some integers r
and s. Adding the two equations gives (m−n)+(n−p)=3r+3s,
and simplifying gives that m − p = 3(r + s). Since r + s is an
integer, this equation shows that 3|(m − p). Hence, by
definition of T, m T p [as was to be shown].
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 Mustafa Jarrar: Lecture Notes in Discrete Mathematics.
Birzeit University, Palestine, 2015

Relations
8.2 Properties of Relations

In this lecture:
 Part 1: Properties: Reflexivity, Symmetry, Transitivity

 Part 2: Proving Properties of Relations

Part 3: Transitive Closure

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 The Transitive Closure of a Relation

The smallest transitive relation that contains the relation.

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 Exercise
Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and consider the relation R defined on A as:
R = {(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)}.
Find the transitive closure of R.

Rt= {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}.

R Rt

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