INTRODUCTION TO computer

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INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

• Information and Communication Technology can simply be defined as an

electronic medium for creating, storing, manipulating receiving and
sending information from one place to another.
• It makes message delivery faster, more convenient, easy to access,
understand and interpret.
 Data
• Data is a collection of un-organized facts, which can include words,
numbers. Images, and sounds etc. Computers manipulate and process data
to create information.
 Information
• Information is data that is organized, has meaning, and can be used for
decision making. Examples patient health reports.
 COMPUTER

• A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of

instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data as (input),
manipulate the data according to specified rules (process), produce results
as information (output), and store the results for future use.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

• Computers can be classified based on their data processing abilities. They

are classified according to functionalities, generation and data handling.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

• There are three (3) major classification of computer

• Classification by function
• Classification by generation
• Classification by size
 Classification by function

There are three (3) major classification of computer by function

Analog computer
Digital computer
Hybrid computer
 Analog computer

• Analog computers work on the principle of measuring, in which the

measurements obtained are translated into data. Modern analog computers
usually employ electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or
currents, to represent the quantities being manipulated. Such computers do
not deal directly with the numbers. They measure continuous physical
magnitudes.
• An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of
computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical,
mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
 Examples of Analog Computers:

Speedometer thermometer,
weight scale
 Digital computer

A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities

represented in a digital form. Such computers process data into a digital
value (in 0s and 1s). They give the results with more accuracy and at a faster
rate.
 Examples of digital computer

digital thermometer
Scientific calculator digital blood pressure
 Hybrid computers (Analog + Digital)

• A hybrid computer is a computer system that combines both digital and

analog components. Traditionally, the analog components of the
computer handle complex mathematical computations. The digital
components take care of logical and numerical operations, in addition to
serving as the controller for the system.
• Hybrid computer is a combination of machines capable of processing
digital and analog data signals.
 Examples of Hybrid computers

All in one computer Desktop computer

 Generation of computer

• First generation (1940 - 1956)

• Second generation (1956 - 1963)
• Third generation (1964 - 1971)
• Fourth generation (1972 - 2010)
• Fifth generation (2010 to present)First generation (1940 - 1956)
 The first generation of computers
• The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes as a major piece of technology.
Vacuum tubes were widely used in computers from 1940 through 1956. Vacuum
tubes were larger components and resulted in first generation computers being quite
large in size, taking up a lot of space in a room. Some of the first generation
computers took up an entire room.
• The ENIAC is a great example of a first generation computer. It consisted of nearly
20,000 vacuum tubes, 10,000 capacitors, and 70,000 resistors. It weighed over 30
tons and took up a lot of space, requiring a large room to house it. Other examples of
first generation computers include the EDSAC, IBM 701, and Manchester Mark 1
)

Second generation (1956 – 1963)

• The second generation of computers saw the use of transistors

instead of vacuum tubes. Transistors were widely used in
computers from 1956 to 1963. Transistors were smaller than
vacuum tubes and allowed computers to be smaller in size, faster
in speed, and cheaper to build.
• The first computer to use transistors was the TX-0 and was
introduced in 1956. Other computers that used transistors include
the IBM 7070, Philco Transac S-1000, and RCA 501.
 Third generation (1964 - 1971)

• The third generation of computers introduced the use of IC

(integrated circuits) in computers. Using IC's in computers
helped reduce the size of computers even more compared to
second-generation computers, and make them faster.
• Nearly all computers since the mid to late 1960s have utilized
IC's. While the third generation is considered by many people to
have spanned from 1964 to 1971, IC's are still used in computers
today. Over 45 years later, today's computers have deep roots
going back to the third generation.
 Fourth generation (1972 - 2010)

• The fourth generation of computers took advantage of the invention of the

microprocessor, more commonly known as a CPU. Microprocessors,
along with integrated circuits, helped make it possible for computers to fit
easily on a desk and for the introduction of the laptop.
• Some of the earliest computers to use a microprocessor include the Altair
8800, IBM 5100, and Micral. Today's computers still use a
microprocessor, despite the fourth generation being considered to have
ended in 2010.
Fifth generation (2010 to present)

• The fifth generation of computers is beginning to use AI (artificial

intelligence), an exciting technology that has many potential applications
around the world. Leaps have been made in AI technology and
computers, but there is still room for much improvement.
• One of the more well-known examples of AI in computers is IBM's
Watson, which was featured on the TV show Jeopardy as a contestant.
Other better-known examples include Apple's Siri on the iPhone and
Microsoft's Cortana on Windows 8 and Windows 10 computers. The
Google search engine also utilizes AI to process user searches.
Classification by size
 Type of Computer

• Super Computer
• The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive
and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of
mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a
supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid
dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.
• The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a
supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as
possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.
 Mainframe Computer

• A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or

even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a
simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves
to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers.
In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers
because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers
can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.
•
 Mini Computer
• A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between
workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between
large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has
the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in
general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of
supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.
 Micro Computer or Personal
Computer
• Micro Computer or Personal Computer
• • Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a
desk.
• • Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and
keyboard. It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a
notebook computer.
• • Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer.
Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output
device.
 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
• A computer consists of a variety of hardware components that work
together with software to perform calculations, organize data, and
communicate with other computers.
• These hardware components include input devices, output devices, a
system unit, storage devices, and communications devices
Some common computer hardware components.
• common computer hardware components include a keyboard, mouse,
microphone, system unit, disk drives, printer, monitor, speakers,, and a
modem.
System Unit
 CPU
• A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main
processor or just processor, is the electronic circuitry that executes
instructions comprising a computer program. The CPU performs basic
arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations specified
by the instructions in the program. This contrasts with external
components such as main memory and I/O circuitry, and specialized
processors such as graphics processing units (GPUs).
 CPU PART
• ALU
• CONTROL UNIT
• I/O UNIT
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which is capable of performing logical operations
(e.g. AND, OR, Ex-OR, Invert etc.) in addition to the arithmetic operations (e.g.
Addition, Subtraction etc.). The control unit supplies the data required by the ALU
from memory, or from input devices, and directs the ALU to perform a specific
operation based on the instruction fetched from the memory. ALU is the “calculator”
portion of the computer.
 CONTROL UNIT(CU)
• A control unit or CU is circuitry that directs operations within a
computer's processor. It lets the computer's logic unit, memory, and both
input and output devices know how to respond to instructions received
from a program.
 I/O UNIT
• he Input unit converts the data that it accepts from the user, into a form
that is understandable by the computer. Similarly, the Output unit
provides the output in a form that is understandable by the user.
 Input
• Input is any data or instructions you enter into the memory of a computer. Once
input is in memory, the CPU can access it and process the input into output.
Four types of input are
• data,
• programs,
• commands, and
• user responses:
 Data
• Data is a collection of unorganized facts that can include words, numbers,
pictures, sounds, and videos. A computer manipulates and processes data
into information
 Program

• A program is a series of instructions that tells a computer how to perform the

tasks necessary to process data into information Programs are kept on
storage media such as a floppy disk, hard disk, CD-ROM, or DVD-ROM.
Programs respond to commands issued by a user.
 Command

• A command is an instruction given to a computer

program. Commands can be issued by typing keywords
or pressing special keys on the keyboard. A keyword is
a specific word, phrase, or code that a program
understands as an instruction. Some keyboards include
keys that send command to a program when you press
them.
 User response

• A user response is an instruction you issue to the

computer by replying to a question posed by a
computer program, such as Do you want to save the
changes you made? Based on your response, the
program performs certain actions.
 Input Device
An input device allows a user to enter data and commands into the memory
of a computer. Four commonly used input devices are the keyboard, the
mouse, a microphone, and a PC camera.
 THE KEYBOARD

Keyboard One of the primary input devices on a computer is the keyboard.

You enter data into a computer by pressing the keys on the keyboard.
Desktop computer keyboards usually have from 101 to 105 keys, while
keyboards for smaller computers such as laptops contain fewer keys. A
computer keyboard includes keys that allow you to type letters of the
alphabet, numbers, spaces, punctuation marks, and other symbols such as the
dollar sign ($) and asterisk (*). A keyboard also contains special keys that
allow you to enter data and instructions into the computer.
 Types of Keyboard

A standard computer keyboard sometimes is called a QWERTY keyboard

because of the layout of its typing area. Pronounced KWER-tee, this
keyboard layout is named after the first six leftmost letters on the top
alphabetic line of the keyboard.

• A keyboard with an alternative layout was designed to improve typing

speed. Called the Dvorak keyboard (pronounced de-VOR-zhak), this type
of keyboard places the most frequently typed letters in the middle of the
typing area.
 POINTING DEVICES

• A pointing device is an input device that allows you to control a

pointer on the screen. In a graphical user interface, a pointer is a
small symbol on the display screen. A pointer often takes the
shape of a block arrow, an I-beam (T) or a pointing hand. Using
a pointing device, you can position the pointer to move or select
items on the screen. For example, you can use a pointing device
to move the insertion point; select text, graphics, and other
objects; and click buttons, icons, links, and menu commands.
 Common pointing devices
• Common pointing devices include the mouse, trackball, touchpad, pointing stick,
joystick, touch screen, light pen, and graphics tablet. Each of these devices is
discussed in the following sections.
Mouse
• The mouse is the most widely used pointing device on desktop computers because
it takes full advantage of a graphical user interface. Designed to fit comfortably
under the palm of your hand, a mouse is an input device that is used to control the
movement of the pointer, often called a mouse pointer, on the screen and to make
selections from the screen.
 WHAT IS OUTPUT?

Output is data that has been processed into a useful form

called information. That is, a computer processes input into
output. Computers generate several types of output,
depending on the hardware and software being used and the
requirements of the user. You may choose to display or
view this output on a monitor, print it on a printer, or listen
to it through speakers or a headset.
 Types of output
•Four common types of output are:
 text,
 graphics,
 audio,
 video.
 OUTPUT DEVICES

An output device is any computer component capable of conveying information

to a user. Commonly used output devices include display devices, printers, speakers,
headsets, data projectors, facsimile machines, and multifunction devices. Others
Disk, projector e.t.c
A printer produces text and graphics, such as photographs, on paper or other
hardcopy medium.
A monitor, which looks like a television screen, is used to display text and graphics.
Speakers allow you to hear music, voice, and other sounds generated by the
computer.
 PRINTERS

A printer is an output device that produces text and

graphics on a physical medium such as paper or
transparency film. Printed information is called hard
copy because the information exists physically and is a
more permanent form of output than that presented on a
display device (soft copy).
 Categories of Printers

Generally, printers can be grouped into two categories:

impact and nonimpact.
• Impact
• Nonimpact.
 Impact Printers

An impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of

paper by striking a mechanism against an ink ribbon that
physically contacts the paper. Because of the striking activity,
impact printers generally are noisy. Many impact printers do not
provide letter quality print. Letter quality (LQ) output is a
quality of print acceptable for business letters.
 Types of impact printers
• Two commonly used types of impact printers are dot-matrix
printers and line printers. Each of these printers is discussed in
the following sections.
DOT. MATRIX
LINE PRINTER
 DOT-MATRIX PRINTERS

Dot-matrix printer is an impact printer that produces printed images when

tiny wire pins on a print head mechanism strike an inked ribbon (Figure 4-
3). When the ribbon presses against the paper, it creates dots that form
characters and graphics.
 Line Printer

• A line printer is a high-speed impact printer that prints an entire

line at a time. The speed of a line printer is measured by the
number of lines per minute (1pm) it can print. Capable of
printing up to 3,000 lines per minute (1pm), these printers often
are used with mainframes, minicomputers, or with a network in
applications such as manufacturing, distribution, or shipping.
 Types of line printers
• Two popular types of line printers used for high-volume output are band
and shuttle-matrix.
• A band printer prints fully-formed characters when hammers strike a
horizontal, rotating band that contains shapes of numbers, letters of the
alphabet, and other characters.
• A shuttle-matrix printer works more like a dot-matrix printer; the
difference is the shuttle-matrix printer moves a series of print hammers
back and forth horizontally at incredibly high speeds. Unlike a band
printer, a shuttle-matrix printer can print characters in various fonts and
font sizes
 Nonimpact Printers

A nonimpact printer forms characters and

graphics on a piece of paper without actually
striking the paper. Some spray ink, while others
use heat and pressure to create images. Because
these printers do not strike the paper, they are
much quieter than the previously discussed
impact printers..
 Types of nonimpact printers

• Three commonly used types of nonimpact printers are ink-jet

printers, laser printers, and laser printers,. Each of these
printers is discussed in the following sections
• ink-jet printers
• laser printers,
• laser printers,
 INKJET PRINTERS

An ink-jet printer is a type of

nonimpact printer that forms
characters and graphics by spraying
tiny drops of liquid ink onto a piece
of paper. Ink-jet printers usually use
individual sheets of paper stored in a
removable or stationary tray.
 LASER PRINTERS

A laser printer is a high-speed, high-quality

nonimpact printer. Laser printers for personal computers
usually use individual sheets of paper stored in a removable
tray that slides into the printer case. Some laser printers
have trays that can accommodate different sizes of paper,
while others require separate trays for letter- and legal-
sized paper.
 Plotters and Large-Format Printers
Plotters and large-format printers are sophisticated printers used to produce
high-quality drawings such as blueprints, maps, circuit diagrams, and signs.
Because blueprints, maps, and other such drawings can be quite large, these
printers typically can handle paper with widths up to 60 inches.
 Special-Purpose Printers

In addition to the printers just discussed, other printers have been developed
for special purposes. A photo printer is a color printer designed to produce
photo lab quality pictures directly from a digital camera.
 TERMINALS

A terminal is a device that performs both input and

output because it consists of a monitor (output), a
keyboard (input), and a video card. Terminals fall
into three basic categories: dumb terminals,
intelligent terminals, and special-purpose
terminals.
 Dumb terminal
• A dumb terminal has no processing power, and thus, cannot function as an
independent device. A dumb terminal is used to enter and transmit data to,
or receive and display information from, a computer to which it is
connected. Dumb terminals are connected to a host computer that
performs the processing and then sends the output back to the dumb
terminal.
 Intelligent terminal

intelligent terminal also has memory and a

processor that has the capability of performing
some functions independent of the host computer.
Intelligent terminals sometimes are called
programmable terminals because they can be
programmed by the software developer to perform
basic tasks.
 Special-purpose terminals

• Other special-purpose terminals perform specific

tasks and contain features uniquely designed for
use in a particular industry. Two of these special-
purpose terminals are point-of-sale terminals and
automatic teller machines.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software, also called a computer program or

simply a program, is a series of instructions that
tells the hardware of a computer what to do. For
example, some instructions direct the computer to
allow you to input data from the keyboard and
store it in memory.
 TYPES OF SOFTWARE

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
 System Software

• System software is programs that control the operations

of the computer and its devices, serves as the interface
between a user and the computer’s hardware.
Two types of system software are:
• operating system and
• utility programs.
 OPERATING SYSTEM

• The operating system contains instructions that coordinate all of the

activities of hardware devices. The operating system also contains
instructions that allow you to run application software. Microsoft Windows
is the name of a popular operating system that is used on many of today’s
computers.
• When you start a computer, the operating system is loaded, or copied, into
memory from the computer’s hard disk. It remains in memory while the
computer is running and allows you to communicate with the computer and
other software.
 UTILITY PROGRAMS

• A utility program is a type of system software that performs a specific

task. Usually related to managing a computer. Its devices, or its programs.
An example of a utility program is an uninstaller, which removes a
program that has been installed on a computer. Most operating systems
include several utility programs for managing disk drives, printers, and
other devices. You also can buy stand-alone utility programs to perform
additional computer management functions.
 Application Software

Application software consists of programs designed to perform specific tasks

for users. Popular application software includes word processing software,
spreadsheet software, database software, and presentation graphics software
memos. Spreadsheet software allows you to calculate numbers arranged in
rows and columns and often is used for budgeting, forecasting, and other
financial tasks. Database software is used to store data in an organized
fashion, as well as to retrieve, manipulate, and display that data in a
meaningful form. Presentation graphics software allows you to create
documents called slides that are used in making presentations.
 Application software is available as:

• packaged software,
• custom software,
• shareware,
• freeware, and
• public-domain software.
 PACKAGED SOFTWARE

Packaged software is designed to meet the needs of a wide variety of users,

not just a single user or company.
Packaged software sometimes is called commercial off-the-shelf software
because you can purchase these programs off the shelf from software
vendors or stores that sell computer products.
 CUSTOM SOFTWARE

CUSTOM SOFTWARE
Sometimes a user or organization with unique software
requirements cannot find packaged software that meets all
of its needs. In this case, the user or organization can use
custom software, which is a program or programs developed
at a user’s request to perform specific functions
 SHAREWARE

Shareware is software that is distributed free for

a trial period. If you want to use a shareware
program beyond that period of time, you are
expected to send a payment to the person or
company that developed the program.
 FREE WARE AND PUBLIC-DOMAIN SOFTWARE

Freeware is software that is provided at no cost to a user

by an individual or company. Although free, freeware is
copyrighted, meaning you cannot resell it as your own.
Public-domain software is free software that has been
donated for public use and has no copyright restrictions.
 Memory

• Memory while performing a processing operation, the CPU needs a place

to temporarily hold instructions to be executed and data to be used with
those instructions. Memory, which is composed of one or more chips on
the motherboard, holds data and instructions while they are being
processed by the CPU.
• Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information
temporarily, like RAM (random access memory), or permanently, like
ROM (read-only memory).
 Random-access

Random-access memory is a volatile

memory form of computer memory
that can be read and changed in any
order, typically used to store working
data and machine code. A random-
access memory device allows data
items to be read or written.
 Read-only memory
• Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of non-
volatile memory used in computers and other
electronic devices. Data stored in ROM cannot
be electronically modified after the manufacture
of the memory device. Read-only memory is
useful for storing software that is rarely changed
during the life of the system, also known as
firmware. Software applications (like video
games) for programmable devices can be
distributed as plug-in cartridges containing
ROM.
 RAM VS ROM

Random Access Memory Read-only memory

Use RAM allows the computer to read data quickly ROM stores the program required to
to run applications. It allows reading and initially boot the computer. It only
writing. allows reading.

Volatility RAM is volatile i.e. its contents are lost when It is non-volatile i.e. its contents are
the device is powered off. retained even when the device is
powered off.
 Storage

Storage, also called secondary storage, auxiliary storage, or mass

storage, holds items such as data, instructions, and information
for future use.
Storage is non-volatile, which means that items in storage are
retained even when power is removed from the computer. A
storage medium (media is the plural) is the physical material on
which items are kept.
Storage terms
Storage media pyramid
 FLOPPY DISKS

• A floppy disk, or diskette, is a portable,

inexpensive storage medium that consists
of a thin, circular, flexible plastic disk with
a magnetic coating enclosed in a square-
shaped plastic shell. In the early 1 970s,
IBM introduced the floppy disk as a new
type of storage.
 hard disk

• A hard disk is a computer storage medium consists of

several inflexible, circular disks, called platters, on
which items are stored electronically. A platter in a hard
disk is made of aluminum, glass, or ceramic and is
coated with a material that allows items to be
magnetically recorded on its surface.
 Compact disc (CD)
A compact disc (CD) is a flat, round,
portable, metal/plastic storage medium that
usually is 4.75 inches in diameter and less
than one-twentieth of an inch thick.
Compact disks store items such as data,
instructions, and information by using
microscopic pits (indentations) and land (flat
areas) that are in the middle layer of the
disc.
 TAPE

One of the first storage media used with mainframe computers

was magnetic tape, a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic
capable of storing large amounts of data and information at a low
cost. Tape storage requires sequential access, which refers to
reading or writing data consecutively. Like a music tape, you
must forward or rewind the tape to a specific point to access a
specific piece of data
 Data processing
• Data processing is, generally, “ the collection and manipulation of data
items to produce meaningful information.
• The data can be stored in a computer file.
 file
• A file is term as a collection of logical related records.
• A record is term as a logical unit comprising of related data items.
• A computer file is a computer resource for recording data in a
computer storage device. Just as words can be written to paper, so can
information be written to a computer file. Files can be edited and
transferred through the internet on that particular computer system.
 Physical file & A logical file
• A physical file is the file as it is stored on a recording medium, such as a
disk or tape.
• A logical file is a structure declared within a program. When a program
executes an OPEN operation for a logical file, the system connects that
logical file to a physical file on a peripheral I/O device.
 Master File

A file containing permanent or semi-permanent data consolidated for

reference and updating. The master file will have to be updated so that it
reflects the current status of the data it contains. Example of this file are
PATIENTS master file, STUDENTS master file.
 Reference file
• A reference file is mainly used for reference or look-up purposes. Look-up
information is that information that is stored in a separate file but is
required during processing. For example, in a point of sale terminal, the
item code entered either manually or using a barcode reader looks up the
item description and price from a reference file stored on a storage device.
 Data transmission
• Data transmission and data reception is the transfer and reception of data
over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel.
 Computer Network

A Network is a collection of computers and

devices connected by communications channels
that allows users to share data, information,
hardware, and software with other users. Such as
printers, digital data, Images, Videos e.tc via
communication channels.
 Communication channels

Communication channels include Physical and

wireless:
Physical transmission media:
a network cable is a type of cable wiring used in
telecommunications that relays data from one
computer to another.
 Types of cable network cable
Twisted pair cable
Coaxial cable
Fiber optic cable
 Twisted-Pair Cable

• One of the more commonly used transmission media for network cabling
and telephone systems is twisted-pair cable. Twisted-pair cable consists of
one or more twisted-pair wires bundled together Each Twisted-pair wire
consists of two separate insulated copper wires that are twisted together.
Twisted pair divided into two
Shielded twisted pair cable
Unshielded twisted pair cable
 Coaxial Cable

• A second type of physical

transmission media is coaxial cable.
Coaxial cable, often referred to as
coax (pronounced CO-ax), consists
of a single copper wire surrounded
by three layers: (1) an insulating
material, (2) a woven or braided
metal, and (3) a plastic outer coating
 Fiber-optic cable
• Another type of physical transmission
media is fiber-optic cable. The core of a
fiber-optic cable consists of dozens or
hundreds of thin strands of glass or
plastic that use light to transmit signals.
Each strand, called an optical fiber, is as
thin as a human hair.
 Types of network Computer Network
• LAN ( Local area network)
• MAN (Metropolitan area
network)
• WAN (Wide area network)
 A local area network (LAN)
• A local area network (LAN) is a
network that connects computers in a
limited geographical area, such as a
school computer laboratory, office,
or group of buildings. Two popular
types of LANs are peer-to-peer
networks and client/server networks.
 Metropolitan are network (MAN)
• A metropolitan area network is a
network that covers a larger
geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to
form a larger network.
 A wide area network (WAN)
A wide area network (WAN)
is a network that covers a
large geographical area (such
as a city or country) using a
communications channel that
combines telephone lines,
microwave, satellites, or other
transmission media. E.g
internet