Transport in Humans

The Blood Circulatory System

 Introduction
• Confusion over the nature and role of the heart
and blood in the body had existed for centuries
• Pliny the Elder (AD 23-79 )
• Galen, a Greek physician (~ AD 150)
• William Harvey (1578, England)
 William Harvey
• Most physicians of the time thought that lungs
were responsible for moving the blood around
throughout the body
• Heart was a pump
• Blood flow was unidirectional due to valves
• Closed circulatory system
 You will learn…
• Structure and functions of
– Circulatory system
– Arteries, veins and capillaries
– Heart
• Human blood cells
• Main blood vessels
• Lymphatic system
• Cause and prevention of coronary heart
diseases
 Why the need?
• Diffusion alone not adequate
• Need efficient transport system
• Bring substances very close to body cells for
easier diffusion.
• 2 kinds: Blood system and lymphatic system
 The Circle of Blood
• Blood flows around the body (circulation)
• Closed circulatory system
– No whole blood escapes into the tissues or mixes
with the tissue fluid
– Consist of the blood vessels, heart and blood

• Main Functions:
– Carry oxygen and food TO cells of body
– Carry waste FROM cells to outside the body
No whole blood escapes into the tissues or
mixes with the tissue fluid
 Human Circulatory System

Human Circulatory System

Blood Blood Vessels Heart

 Human Circulatory System

Blood

Plasma Blood Cells

-45%
-55%

-Red blood cells

-White blood cells
- Platelets
Centrifuged blood
Textbook pg 125

Can you identify

the different blood
cells?

WBCs

RBCs

Platelets
 Main functions of blood
1. Transport
• RBCs
Oxygen
• Food
• Hormones
Carried in plasma
• Waste products
• Heat
2. Protection
• Against foreign particles
• clotting
 Plasma
• Yellow fluid

Constituents Functions
Water (makes up 90%) •Solvent
•Transport medium
•Maintains body temperature
Inorganic ions •Maintains osmotic pressure
(Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+) •pH buffering (pH 7.4)

Soluble proteins •Maintain normal blood pressure

(Albumen, antibodies, •Defence
fibrinogen, globulins) •Blood clotting
•pH buffering
 Red Blood Cells
• aka Erythrocytes
• Formed in bone marrow
• Biconcave disc shaped cells; lack of nucleus
• Red colour due to haemoglobin
– Protein that contains iron and readily combines with
oxygen
 Function of RBC
Transport oxygen to cells
– In the lungs, oxygen readily combines with iron in
haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin (bright red)
– In body tissues, oxyhaemoglobin will unload its
oxygen to become haemoglobin (dark red) again

High oxygen concentration

Hb + 4 O2 Hb(O2)4
Low oxygen concentration
 Acclimatization
• People living at high altitudes usually have
large number of RBCs.
• Compensate for low oxygen concentration at
high altitudes
 White Blood Cells
• aka leucocytes
• Colourless and larger than RBC
• Contain nucleus
• 2 main types: Lymphocytes and Phagocytes

Produce antibodies - Monoctyes, Polymorph

- Engulf and ingest
bacteria (phagocytosis)
 Monocyte

Lymphocyte

Polymorph
 Phagocytosis
• By phagocytes (Monocytes and Polymorphs)
– Able to ingest and digest foreign particles
– Cell “eating”
• http://www.sp.uconn.edu/~terry/Common/phago053.h
 RBC WBC
• Biconcaved disc • Round
shape
• No nucleus • Irregular nuclei
(circular or lobed)
• Red colour • Colourless
(haemoglobin)
• Diameter < 0.01mm • 4 times larger
• 5,000,000 in 1 mm3 • 5000-10,000 in 1 mm3
• 700: 1 • 700:1
• Life span: 3-4 months • Life span: Few days
(except memory cells)
 Recap…
What does a “closed circulatory system”
mean?
No whole blood escapes into the tissues or mixes
with the tissue fluid

What are the main components of the

circulatory system?
Blood, blood vessels and heart
The plasma makes up how many percent of
the blood?
55%

What is the function of haemoglobin?

Transport oxygen in RBCs

What are the 2 main types of WBCs called?

Lymphocytes and Phagocytes
 Antibodies
• Pathogens contain antigens (chemicals)
• These antigens stimulate lymphocytes to
produce specific antibodies
• Antibodies can:
– kill bacteria
– neutralize toxins
– Cause bacteria to clump together (agglutination)
 Specificity
• Antibodies specific for bacteria A (eg.
measles) will not attack bacteria B (eg.
chicken pox)
 Immunity
• After an illness (e.g. chicken pox),
antibodies against chicken pox persist and
remain in the blood
• Thus, the person is said to be immune to
chickenpox
 Memory cells
• Special type of lymphocytes (WBCs)
• Formed after an infection / illness
• Remain in the blood stream for life
• Able to be activated very quickly if person
encounters the same antigen again
• Person is said to be immune to that
infection/ illness
 Vaccines
• Dead or harmless form of the pathogen
(BCG vaccine against tuberculosis)
• Toxoid – the inactivated toxin from the
pathogen (tetanus vaccines)
 Organ transplant and tissue
rejection
• Replacement of diseased organ with healthy
one
• BUT new organ must not be rejected by
body
• (Body detects new organ as foreign particle
 Defence system kicks in)
 Prevention of tissue rejection
• Donor and recipient must be close relatives
• Suppress immune system
– Use of drugs
– X-ray of bone marrow to reduce blood production
Platelets

• Tiny pieces of
cytoplasm
• Not true cells
• Plays important role
in blood clotting
 Blood clotting
• Clotting of blood seals the wound
• Prevents excessive blood loss
• Prevents foreign particles from entering blood

Textbook pg 127
 Blood Clotting
Injury/ Ruptured blood vessel
Activates platelets to release

Thrombokinase
(enzyme)
catalyses
Prothrombin Thrombin
(inactive) (Ca2+, Vit K) (active)
catalyses

Fibrinogen Fibrin
(soluble) (insoluble)
Forms
meshwork
Blood Clot
 Why doesn’t blood clot in
undamaged blood vessels?

• Anticlotting substance called heparin

• Produced in liver
• Thrombokinase able to neutralize the action
of heparin
 Summary
What is the name of the specific structure that
antibodies recognise?
Antigens

How can a person become immune to a disease

like chicken pox?
Antibodies specific for the chickenpox virus remain
in the blood stream after the illness, and will be
activated to attack the same virus again in
future.
How can we prevent tissue rejection?
Close relatives or Suppress immune system (Use
of drugs / reduce blood production)

Do platelets have a nucleus?

No, they are not true cells

What reaction does the enzyme thrombokinase

catalyse in the blood clotting process?
Prothrombin  thrombin
 Blood Groups
• Most common blood group systems: ABO and Rhesus
Factor (Rh)
• Difference due to presence or absence of certain
antigens (surface of RBCs) and antibodies (in plasma)
• Individuals have different types and combinations of
these molecules.
• The blood group you belong to depends on what you
have inherited from your parents.
• Not all blood groups are compatible with each other.
Mixing incompatible blood groups leads to blood
agglutination, which is dangerous for individuals.
 ABO blood group
• 4 blood groups: A, B, AB and O

Blood group A
- A antigens
- B antibodies

Blood group B
- B antigens
- A antibodies
Blood group AB
- A and B antigens
- NO antibodies

Blood group O
- NO antigens
- A and B antibodies
 Rh factor
• Rh is another antigen on RBC’s surface
• Rh+ (people who have this factor) or Rh-
 Parent  Child
• Must a child’s blood group always be the
same as one, or both, of their parent’s
blood group?
• Punnett square
Agglutination of incompatible blood
groups
Blood Antigen Antibody Can Can
Type receive donate
A A B A, O A, AB

B B A B, O B, AB

AB A and B None All AB

O none A and B O all

BG B BG A
Blood Type A Blood Type B

BG B BG A
Blood Type AB Blood Type O
BG AB BG O
Blood Type A Blood Type B

BG AB BG O
Blood Type AB Blood Type O
• Blood typing game: http://nobelprize
.org/medicine/educational/landsteiner/
 Human Circulatory System

Human Circulatory System

Blood Blood Vessels Heart

 Blood Vessels

Blood Vessels

Arteries and Veins and

Capillaries
aterioles venules
 Arteries & Aterioles
• Vessels carrying blood AWAY from the heart
• Aterioles are smaller vessels that join the larger
arteries to the capillaries

Elastic layer
Connective Tissue

Endothelium

Thick smooth muscle

Lumen
 Capillaries
• Small vessels connecting arteries and veins
• One cell thick
• Site where exchange takes place
– Gases, nutrients and waste products
– Between blood in capillaries and interstitial fluid
– Mainly by diffusion

Basement membrane

Endothelium
 Veins and Venules
• Vessels carrying blood back TOWARDS the
heart
• Venules are the smallest veins, joining the
capillaries to the larger veins
• Valves: for unidirectional blood flow
• Vericose veins

Connective Tissue Endothelium

Thin smooth muscle Lumen

 Elastic layer Elastic layer
Thin smooth
Thick smooth muscle
muscle
 Veins and Venules Capillaries Arteries and Arterioles

Function : Carry blood Function is to allow Function : Carry blood

Function is to carry blood
Function is to carry
towards from heart blood exchange of materials away from heart
from the heart to the
from tissues to the heart between the blood and the
tissues
tissues

Very thin, permeable Thick walls with smooth

Thin walls, mainly
walls, only one cell thick to elastic layers to resist high
collagen, since blood at
allow exchange of pressure and muscle layer
low pressure
materials to aid pumping
 Veins and Venules Capillaries Arteries and Arterioles

Very small lumen. Blood

Large lumen to reduce
cells must distort to Small lumen
resistance to flow.
pass through.

Many valves to prevent No valves (except in

No valves
back-flow heart)

Blood pressure falls in

Blood at low pressure Blood at high pressure
capillaries.

Blood changes from

Blood usually Blood usually
oxygenated to
deoxygenated (except oxygenated (except in
deoxygenated (except
in pulmonary vein) pulmonary artery)
in lungs)
Blood on the wall

What type of blood vessel was severed?

 Human Circulatory System

Human Circulatory System

Blood Blood Vessels Heart

The Human Heart
• Made up of cardiac
muscles
• About the size of a
clenched fist
• Lies between the lungs
with its apex extending
slightly towards the left

apex
• Pericardium (double-
walled sac) surrounds
the heart
• The space between the
double walled
pericardium is filled with
pericardial fluid.
• Acts as a lubricant –
reduces friction when
heart beats
 The heart chambers

Atrium Atrium

Ventricle Ventricle
 LEFT Atrium
RIGHT Atrium

LEFT Ventricle

RIGHT Ventricle
 Part of heart Function

Atria: Plural •Receive blood coming into heart

Atrium: Singular •Pumps blood into ventricles
Ventricles •Pump blood out of the heart

Note:
Atria have thinner walls than ventricles because they only
need to pump blood to the ventricles below.
Ventricles have thicker walls because they need to pump
blood to the rest of the body
 The heart chambers

Heart Valves

Median Septum
 Valves

Valves

Median Septum
 Part of heart Function

Median septum •Muscular wall that divides the heart

into left and right side
•Blood from the 2 halves never mix
Valves: Prevent backflow of blood
1. Tricuspid Found between right atrium and
ventricle
2. Bicuspid Found between left atrium and ventricle

3. Semilunar Found between ventricles and

pulmonary artery and aorta
 Textbook Pg 133, Fig 8.10 (b)

Valves in
the Heart Semilunar
Valves

Bicuspid
Tricuspid Valve Valve

Chordae Tendineae
 Chordae Tendineae
• Cords / tendons that are attached to the
tricuspid and bicuspid valves
• Help to prevent the valves from being
turned inside out
 Walls of Heart

• Thinner walls on right

side
• Thicker walls on left
side
• Why?
Left side pumps oxygenated
blood (higher pressure) to
whole body
Need stronger and bigger
muscles
 Double Circulation
• The heart pumps oxygenated blood to all organs
• Deoxygenated blood is returned to heart
• This deoxygenated blood must be sent to the
lungs to replenish its oxygen content
• Once oxygenated, the blood returns to the heart
again to be pumped to the rest of the body
• This is known as double circulation (blood need
to pass by the heart twice in one cycle)
 Double Circulation
• Pulmonary Circulation
– Transports blood to lungs
and back to heart
– Low pressure

• Systemic Circulation
– Pumps blood to rest of body
and back to heart
– Higher pressure
Double Circulation

Rest of
Body
Blood vessels to and from Heart
Aortic arch

Superior Pulmonary
Vena Cava artery

Pulmonary
Vein

Inferior
Vena Cava
Direction of blood flow inside heart
 Double Circulation

Left Ventricle aorta Body Vena cava Right Atrium

Rt Atrium Tricuspid valves Rt Ventricle Pulmonary artery Lung

Semilunar valves

Rest of
Body

Lung Pulmonary vein Lt Atrium Bicuspid Valves Lt Ventricle

 Summary…
Name the 4 chambers of the human heart
Right and left atria; right and left ventricles

What are the roles of the semilunar valves in the heart?

To prevent backflow of blood into the ventricles

What is the function of the median septum?

To separate the left side from the right side of the heart
(prevent the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood)
Why is the human circulatory system described as
a double circulatory system?
Blood flows from heart to rest of body back to
heart; then from heart to lungs and back to the
heart again.

What is the main difference between the hepatic

portal vein and other veins in the body?
The hepatic portal vein transport blood from organ
to organ
 Main Blood Vessels

Hepatic
portal vein
 Hepatic portal vein
• Transport blood filled with nutrients from
stomach & intestine to liver
• The only vein that joins organ to organ
 Mode of Action of the Heart
(i.e. How the heart beats)

• The chambers of the

heart contract and relax in
pairs
• When both atria contract;
ventricles are relaxed
• When ventricles contract,
atria are relaxed

Heartbeat: http://www.psionica.co.uk/biology/KS4Biology/heartbt.htm
 Heartbeat (Cardiac Cycle)

One heartbeat (a cardiac cycle) consists of

two parts:

3. Systole (ventricular contraction)

4. Diastole (ventricular relaxation)
Systole (contraction)
– Ventricles contract
– Blood is forced into the pulmonary artery and aorta
– Tricuspid and bicuspid valves are closed
– Blood pressure normally rises to120 mmHg
Diastole (relaxation)
– Ventricles are relaxed; tricuspid and bicuspid valves
open
– Blood flows from vena cava and pulmonary veins
into atria
– Blood then flows from atria into ventricles
– Both atria contract at the end of diastole, forcing any
remaining blood into the corresponding ventricles.
– Semilunar valves closed to prevent blood from
entering the pulmonary artery and aorta.
– Blood pressure falls to around 80 mmHg
 Heart sounds
• During systole, “Lup” sound is caused by
backflow of blood against closed tricuspid and
bicuspid valves
• During diastole, “Dup” sound is caused by
backflow of blood against closed semilunar
valves
• Rhythmic “Lup-Dup” sounds results
• Stethoscope can be used to hear the heart beat
 Control of Heartbeat
• The heart has a natural rhythmic
contraction of its own
• Can be also controlled by some nerves
from the brain to increase or decrease the
number of heart beats when necessary.
 Pacemaker
• Group of specialized cells found at top
right atrium
• Pacemaker initiates heart beat
• Pacemaker is controlled by nerves from
the brain
• To speed up or slow down heart rate when
necessary

http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/cardio1/electrical.html
 Artificial Pacemaker
• Some heart diseases can cause the heart to
beat irregularly
• Can be corrected by using an artificial (man-
made) pacemaker
• Doctors will implant this small electronic device
near the patient’s heart
• It will produce regular pulses of electricity which
stimulates the heart to contract and relax at the
right rate.
 Pulse Rate
• The number of times the
heart beats in one minute
• The resting heart beats
approximately 60 to 100
times per minute
• Pulse rate increases
during exercise, and when
one is feeling stressed,
nervous, angry or excited.
 Pulse Rate
How many times does your heart beat in :
• One minute? 70

• One day? 100,800

• One week? 705,600

• One month? 21,168,000

• One year? 254,016,000

 Pulse Rate of…
• Foetus: 140-150 beats/min

• Newborn baby: 130-140

• 3 year old: 95-100

• 10 year old: 84

• 25 year old: 72

• 50 year old: 76
 Blood Pressure
• Blood pressure is around
120/80 mmHg
• Blood pressure is the force of
the blood pushing against the
walls of the arteries each time
the heart beats.
• Blood pressure is at its highest
during systole.
• Blood pressure is lowest when
the heart is at rest, between
beats (diastole)

http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab10/intro.html
 High Blood Pressure
• Blood pressure of 140/90 or higher is
considered high blood pressure

Who is at risk?
– middle-aged and elderly people
– obese people
– heavy drinker
– Inherited form parents
 Key Words
• Coronary arteries
• Arteriosclerosis
• Atherosclerosis
• Cholesterol
• Thrombosis
 Cardiovascular Diseases
• Diseases of the heart and blood:
– Coronary heart disease
– Hypertension (high BP)
– Arteriosclerosis (hardening of arteries)
– Atherosclerosis (narrowing of arteries)
 Coronary arteries
• A lot of blood pass
through the heart all
the time
• But heart is NOT
nourished by the
blood pass through it
• Coronary arteries
supply oxygen and
nutrients to the heart
 Coronary Heart Diseases

• Occur when coronary

arteries become
blocked
• Result: Oxygen and
nutrients cannot be
supplied to the heart
 Recap…
What is the main difference between the hepatic portal vein
and other veins in the body?
The hepatic portal vein transport blood from organ to organ

What are the 2 parts of a cardiac cycle?

Systole and diastole

What causes the heart sounds as the heart beats?

Backflow of blood against the valves
 Recap…
What is the pacemaker?
Group of specialized cells found at top right atrium
that regulates heartbeat.

What is the pulse rate?

The number of times the heart beats in one minute

When is blood pressure the highest in a cardiac

cycle?
During systole (120 mmHg)
Steps in coronary heart disease
• Coronary arteries become
blocked when lipids (fat and
cholesterol) carried by the blood
get deposited on the walls of the
arteries, thus making them
narrower
• This is called atherosclerosis
• Calcium salts then cover the lipids to form a fibrous
net called atheroma
• Blood clots (thrombus) may also form
• Coronary occlusion occurs when the artery is fully
blocked and the supply of blood to the heart is
stopped
• A heart attack results, as part of the heart dies from
the lack of oxygen
 Causes of Heart Diseases
• Fatty diet (high in sodium, cholesterol and saturated fats)
• Lack of exercise
• Obesity
• Smoking
• Stress
 Tissue Fluid
• NOT blood or plasma
• But similar to plasma, with fewer proteins
• Escapes from capillaries during fluid
exchange
• Also forms a thin film over all body cells
 Fluid Exchange
• Take place in capillaries
• But blood has a higher osmotic potential
than the surrounding tissue fluid
• How would nutrients and water flow out of
capillaries??
 Fluid Exchange in Tissues

Arterial end Venous end

• Exchange of substances between blood and

body cells take place through the capillaries
• Blood pressure higher at arterial end
• This pressure forces water and nutrients out of
capillaries into intercellular spaces
 Water Tissue Fluid Water
Nutrients Waste

Arterial end Venous end

• Body cells take in nutrients from intercellular

spaces
• Blood pressure is lower at venous end, water
and waste products from cells enter capillaries
• Fluid in intercellular spaces is called tissue fluid
 Oedema

• Occurs when tissue fluid

is formed faster than it
can be drained away
• Accumulate in tissues
and cause them to swell
• Occurs in elderly people
or pregnant women
 Lymphatic System

• Not all the tissue fluid returns to the capillaries

• Some will enter blind–ending vessels called
lymphatics as lymph fluid
• Lymph fluid
– pale yellow liquid
– Similar to plasma except for the absence of plasma
proteins
 Lymphatic System

• Lymphatic vessels:
– Transport excess
tissue fluid back into
blood stream
• Lymphatic Organs:
– Lymph node, tonsils,
thymus and spleen
 Lymphatic Vessels
• Blind-ended
• Compression of skeletal muscles aids in
unidirectional flow
• Valves present
• Small vessels join up to form 2 larger ones;
right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct
• Both ducts empty their contents back into the
blood stream via the subclavian veins
 Lymph Nodes
• Swellings at certain points in the lymphatic
vessels
• Stores lymphocytes and phagocytes (WBCs)
• Releases them into the blood stream
• Thus, lymph nodes play an important role in
body’s defence
 Lymphatic Organs
• Spleen:
– Found on the left side of the abdomen
– Removes worn-out RBCs and produces
lymphocytes and antibodies
• Thymus:
– Found between the collarbone and above the
heart
– Produces and stores lymphocytes
 Blood circulatory system

Heart Blood Vessels Blood

Atria and Arteries Plasma Blood Cells

Ventricles Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules RBC
Veins WBC
Platelets

Lymphatic
system
 Functions (2)
1. RBCs catalyse carbon dioxide reaction

- RBCs pick up CO2 from tissues

- CO2 then combines with water to form carbonic acid
(Enzyme in RBC) H2CO3
CO2 + H2O

- Carbonic acid then ionises to form hydrogen ions and

hydrogen carbonate ions
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
 Functions (2)
-About 70% of the ions then leave the RBC and remain in
the plasma
-CO2 is released when the blood reaches the lungs

H+ + HCO3- H2CO3

H2CO3 CO2 + H2O

BACK
 Valves
• Found in the heart and veins
• Folds of the inner walls of heart and veins
• Shaped like half moons, so called semilunar valves
• Function: Prevent backflow of blood.

Textbook pg 130 NEXT

Unidirectional flow of blood

BACK
 Vericose Veins

• When the valves in the veins near the surface of the

skin fail to close properly
• Allow blood to accumulate in the veins
• Causes vein to bulge (swollen appearance)
NEXT
Valves fail to
close
properly

BACK
 Superior Vena Cava

• Brings deoxygenated blood from head

and arms to right atrium of heart
 Inferior Vena Cava

• Brings blood from bottom part of body into

right atrium of heart
 Pulmonary arteries
• Brings deoxygenated blood from right
ventricle to lungs to uptake oxygen
• The ONLY arteries that transport
deoxygenated blood
• 2 pulmonary arteries – one to each lung
 Pulmonary Vein
• Transports oxygenated blood from the
lungs back to the left atrium of heart
• The ONLY vein that carries oxygenated
blood
• 2 pulmonary veins – one from each lung
 Aorta
• Transport oxygenated blood from left
ventricle to rest of body
• Forms the characteristic aortic arch
• Largest artery of the body