CE-463 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

CLASS OUTLINES
Canals
 Types of Canals

 Design of Irrigation Canals

 Kennedy’s Theory

 Lacey’s Theory

 Canal Lining; Advantages and Types

 Maintenance of Irrigation Canals

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 Canals
Canal: It is an artificial cross section constructed on the
ground to carry water to the field either from a reservoir,
tank or river or from other water sources.

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Types of Canals – Based on Water Supply

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Types of Canals – Based on Functions

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Types of Canals – Based on Alignment

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 Types of Canals – Based on Alignment
Watershed Canal or Ridge Canal: Watershed canal or Ridge
canal
The canal which is aligned along any natural
The dividing ridge line
watershed (ridge line) is called a watershed canal, or a between the catchment
ridge canal. areas of two streams
is called the
Aligning a canal (main canal or branch canal or watershed.
distributary) on the ridge ensures gravity irrigation on
both sides of the canal.
Thus between two major streams, there is the main
watershed (ridge line), which divides the drainage area
of the two streams.
Since the drainage flows away from the ridge, no
drainage can cross a canal aligned on the ridge. Thus, a
canal aligned on the watershed saves the cost of
construction of cross-drainage works.

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 Types of Canals – Based on Alignment
Contour Canal:
A contour canal is an artificially-dug navigable canal which closely follows the contour
line of the land.
It traverses in order to avoid costly engineering works such as boring a tunnel through
higher ground.

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 Types of Canals – Based on Alignment
Contour Canal:
Watershed canal along the ridge line are not found economical in hill areas where the
river flows in the valley well below the watershed.
In fact, the ridge line (watershed) may be hundred of meters above the river. It therefore
becomes virtually impossible to take the canal on top of such a higher ridge line.
In such conditions, contour canals are usually constructed.
A contour canal irrigates only on one side because the area on the other side is higher.
As the drainage flow is always at right angles to the ground contour. Such a channel
would definitely have to cross natural drains and streams, necessitating construction of
cross drainage structures.

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 Types of Canals – Based on Alignment
Side Slope Canal:
A side slope canal is that which is aligned at right angles to the contours; i.e. along the
side slopes.
Since such a canal runs parallel to the natural drainage flow, it usually does
not intercept drainage channels, thus avoiding the construction of cross-drainage
structures.

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Types of Canals – Based on Discharge

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Types of Canals – Based on Lined or Not

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Types of Canals – Based on Lined or Not

Channel / Canal

Unlined Lined

Alluvial Non-alluvial Rigid

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Types of Canals – Based on Financial Output

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 Types of Canal Based on Soil
In irrigation canal design two important factors has to be counted (i) quantity of silt
carried by canal and (ii) type of boundary of canal. There are three types of channel
based on factors. They are (a) Alluvial (b) Non-alluvial and (c) Rigid Boundary or
Lined
(a) Alluvial Channels: Those canals which are excavated in alluvial soil, and carry
sufficient silt in water. The boundary of such canal is of silt known as alluvium. The silt
content in canal depend on the velocity of flow. At high velocity more silt scouring at
bottom of canal occurs, while at low velocity minimum silt deposition occurs. To design
a channel in such area a non silting nor scouring velocity has to be adopted.

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 Types of Canal Based on Soil
(b) Non Alluvial Channels: These channel are excavated in non alluvial soil like, rock,
loam or clay. Such channels usually have no silting problem as water flow with non
silting velocity
© Rigid Boundary Channels: Those channels which have sides and bottom of rigid
materials. Lined channels are rigid boundary channels.

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 Design Requirements of a Canal
Designing Canal involves the selection of:
a)
a) Canal alignment
b) Size and shape of the canal
c) Longitudinal slope
d) Type of lining material (if lined)
c) b)
 Types of Canals
The hydraulic design of a channel or irrigation canal is governed
mainly by two factors:
i. Quantity of silt in the water carried by the channel
ii. Type of boundary surface of the channel
Based on these, we may have three (03) types of channels/canals

Channel / Canal

Unlined Lined

Alluvial Non-alluvial Rigid

 Design of Alluvial Canals
The channel or canal which takes off from a river has to draw a fair share
of silt flowing in the river. This silt is carried either in suspension or along
the bed of the canal. The silt load carried by the channel imposes a
difficult problem in channel design in alluvial soils.
• The velocity to be allowed in a channel design should be such that the silt
flowing in the channel is not dropped on the bed. In case a channel silts up, its
capacity reduces and so it will irrigate less area.
• Also velocity should not be large enough to erode away the bed and sides of
the channel. If sides and bed of a channel are eroded away, the cross-section
increases and besides other damages because of scour, its full supply level
depth decreases; it can, therefore, command much less area.
A velocity which will just keep the silt in suspension, without scouring
the channel is known as non-silting and non-scouring velocity
 Cross Section of Irrigation Canal
A typical and most desired section of a canal is shown below. This section is partly in
cutting and partly in filling and aims in balancing the quantity of earth work in
excavation with that in filling.

When the Natural Surface Level is above the top of the bank, the entire canal section
will have to be in cutting, and it shall be called ‘canal in cutting’.

Similarly, when the NSL is lower than the bed level of the canal, the entire canal section
will have to be built in filling, and it is called ‘canal in filling’.

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 Component of Cross Section
Side slope
Berm
Freeboard
Bank
Service road
Spoil Bank
Borrow Pit

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 Component of Cross Section
Side Slope:
The side slopes should be such that they are stable, depending upon the type of the soil.
A comparatively steeper slope can be provided in cutting rather than in filling, as the
soil in the former case shall be more stable.

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 Component of Cross Section
Berm:

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 Component of Cross Section
Free-Board:

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 Component of Cross Section
Bank:

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 Component of Cross Section
Service Road:

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 Component of Cross Section
Spoil Bank:

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 Component of Cross Section
Borrow Pit:

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 Component of Cross Section
Balancing Depth:

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 Component of Cross Section
Balancing Depth:

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 Design of Alluvial Canals
Design Methods
Many investigations done on various existing channels towards the
design of non-silting non-scouring channel section. Consequently, many
methods / theories developed, notable theories are:
• Kennedy’s Theory
• Lacey’s Theory
Design Data Design Variables
• Design Discharge “Q” • Area of the cross-section “A”
• Surface and soil properties • Hydrualic mean depth “R”
such as rugosity coefficient • Velocity of flow “V”
“N” and silt factor “f” • Bed slope “S”
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 Silt Theories – Kennedy’s Theory
Silt Theories:
Canals suffering either from scouring or silting. Silting reduces the discharge capacity
of canal by reducing its section, while scouring widen the section causing the full
supply level (FSL) lower.
To avoid this problem stable canals which can neither scour or silt, should be designed.
There are two popular theories known as Kennedy’s theory and Lacy’s theory.
Kennedy’s Theory:
According to Kennedy’s the sediment in flowing canal is kept in suspension due to
vertical component of eddies (According to this theory, vertical eddies generated from
the bed are responsible for keeping silt in suspension).
These eddies rises due to the friction of flowing water against the bed and work up
against the depth of canal. The silt supporting power is therefore proportional to the bed
width of the stream and not to its wetted perimeter.

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 Silt Theories – Kennedy’s Theory
• Kennedy’s further defined critical velocity as non silting nor scouring velocity,
and the following relation was derived.
Critical velocity
Mean velocity which keeps the channel free from silting and scouring.
Vo = 0.55 D0.64
In general form it is as; Vo = C Dn
Where,
Vo = critical velocity,
D = depth of water
C = constant, and n = index
number
• This equation was developed on the basis of observations on one canal only. it is
applicable to only those channels which are flowing in sandy silt of the same
quantity or grade as that of Upper Bari Doab Canal system (Pakistan).
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 Silt Theories – Kennedy’s Theory
For other channels a factor m was introduced which is. The equation is then Vo = 0.55 m
D0.64 . Or Vo = C m Dn. m = CVR = V/V0 where CVR is critical velocity ratio.
m = 1.1 to 1.2 for Coarse Sand and 0.70 to 0.90 for fine sand.
23+𝑁1 +0.00155/𝑆
• Kennedy use Kutter’s equation for mean velocity 𝑉 = 0.00155 √𝑅𝑆
1+ 23+ 𝑁/√𝑅
𝑆

1
23+𝑁 +0.00155/𝑆
• Or V = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆 ( Chezy’ equation) where 0.00155
1+ 23+ 𝑁/√𝑅
𝐶= 𝑆

• where N is roughness coefficient R is hydraulic mean radius (A/P) and S is

the
longitudinal slope.
• The continuity equation is Q = A V

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 Silt Theories – Kennedy’s Theory
Silt Carrying Capacity of Channel:

Qt = K B Vo0.25
where
Qt = total quantity of silt transported
K = constant, whose value was not determined by
Kennedy B = bed width
Vo = critical velocity

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 Design of Alluvial Canals
Kennedy Silt Theory
1. Regime Channel – flowing with non-silting non-scouring velocity
2. Vertical Eddies – Silt supporting power bed width & not wetted
perimeter
3. Critical Velocity – V0 = 0.55 D0.64 V0 = CDn V0= 0.84 D0.64
4. CVR (m) – m =
Coarser sand – 1.1 to 1.2
Standard -1
Finer sand - 0.9 to 0.8
 Design of Alluvial Canals
Kennedy Silt Theory
5. Used Chazey’s Equation -
;
C
S Slope
R Hydraulic Mean depth
N Rugosity / roughness Co-efficient
 Design of Channel Based on Kennedy’s Theory
Design Procedure: (Case-I) When Q, N, m and S are given:
• Assume a trial value of depth (D) in meters;
• Calculate the velocity using the equation V= 0.55 m D0.64;
• Calculate area by equation A = Q/V; Assume side slope of channel as ½ : 1
(Z:1) then A = BD +ZD2 = BD + ½ D2.; The unknown is B so calculate B
• Calculate wetted perimeter and Hydraulic mean depth by applying formulas
2
1
• P = B + 2D( 𝑧 2 + 1) = 𝐵 + +1 =𝐵+𝐷
2
2𝐷 √5
• 𝐴 𝐵𝐷+𝐷 /22
R= = .
𝑃
• Calculate 𝐵+𝐷√5
the actual mean velocity of flow from Kutter’s equation. If this value is
the same as calculated value, then the assume depth is correct. If different then
repeat the calculation with a new assumed D value till the two velocities remains the
same

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Design of Channel Based on Kennedy’s Theory
Design Procedure when (1) Q, N, m and S are given

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 Kennedy’s Theory – Example (Case-I)
Example:
Design an irrigation channel with the following data by Kennedy’s method. Given that
Q = 50 cumecs; S = 1/5000; N = 0.0225 and CVR = m =1.0
Solution:
Let the assumed depth = D = 2.3 m
The Kennedy’s critical velocity V0 = 0.55 (D)0.64 = 0.55 (2.3)0.64 = 0.9372 m/sec
Area (A) = Q/V0 = 50/0.9372 = 52.15 m2;
Assuming Z : 1= ½ :1 then 52.15 = BD + ZD2 = 52.15 = 2.3 B+ 0.5(2.3)2 =>
B = 52.15-0.5 (2.3)2/2.3 = 21.524 m
Wetted Perimeter (P) = 𝐵 + 2𝐷 (√Z2+1) = 21.525 +2*2.3(1+1/4)2 = 26.667 m
Hydraulic mean depth = A/P = 52.15/ 26.667 = 1.955 m
1
23+𝑁+0.00155/ 𝑆
According to Kutter’s equation 𝑉 = 0.00155 √𝑅𝑆
1+ 23+ 𝑁/√𝑅
𝑆

Plugging the value of N, R and S in the above equation V = 0.9945

m/s
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 Kennedy’s Theory – Example (Case-I)
CVR = m = V/V0 = 0.9945/0.9472 = 1.06. As the CVR is greater than the given value
So use the 2nd trial.
Difference in the value of CVR = (1.06-1.0)100 = 6% ; Let increase the depth 12% then
new depth D = 2.3 +.12*2.3 = 2.576 m then V0 = 0.55 (2.576)0.64 =1.0077 m/s =
1.01m/s
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• A= 𝑄= = 49.5 m2 Also A = BD + ZD2 => B =49.5-0.5*2.5762/2.576 = 17.93 m
𝑉0
1.01
• P = B + 2D ( 𝑧 2 + 1) = 17.93 + 2*2.58 (0.52+1)0.5 = 23.69
m 49.50
• R = 23.69= 2.08 m

23+ 1 0.00155
0.0225 +2∗10^−4
• Use kutter’s equation for 𝐶 = =50.6
1+ 23+
0.00155 0.0225/√2.08
2∗10−4

• V = C √𝑅𝑆 = 50.6 (2.08*1/5000)0.5 =1.03

• CVR = 1.03/1.01 = 1.01 OK
• Thus B = 17.93 and D = 2.58 Answer
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 Kennedy’s Theory – Example (Case-I)
Example:
Design any channel for following data, Q=35 cumecs S=1/5000 N=0.025, Side
slope=1:1
Solution:
Assume depth D = 2 m
Calculate critical velocity VO=0.55mD0.64 =0.55×1×20.64 =0.8571 m/sec
Calculate area using equation of continuity i.e. Q=AV => A=Q/V0 = 35/0.8571 =
40.8354 m2
Calculate bed width from the area. Area, A=BD+ZD2
B = A-ZD2/D = 40.8354-4/2 => B=18.418 m
Calculate hydraulic radius. R=A/P
Wetted perimeter of cross section,
P = 𝐵 + 2𝐷( 𝑧 2 + 1 P = 18.418+2*2(2)0.5 =24.075 m
𝐴 40.8354
𝑅= = = 1.696 = 1.7 𝑚
𝑃 24.075
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 Kennedy’s Theory – Example (Case-I)
Calculate Velocity using Kutter’s equation
23+ 𝑁1 +0.00155/ 𝑆 1
23+0.𝑜 25 +0.00155/2×10−4
C= 0.00155 = = 44.52
1+ 23+ 𝑁/√𝑅 1+(23+0.00155 /2×10−4 )×0.025/√1.70
𝑆

Calculate Chezy’s coefficient using kutter’s equation.

1
V=𝐶 𝑅𝑆 = 44.52( × 1.7)= 0.821 m/s
5000

Now find out the critical velocity ratio, i.e. “m”

=> m=V/Vo = m=0.821/0.8571/ => m=0.9578
O.K
If, m=(0.9-1.1) then design is O.K otherwise revise the section assuming
different depth. Hence Required Perimeters are,
• Depth, D=2 m; Base width, B=18.418 m; Top width, T=22.418 m
• Side slope=1:1; Bed slope=1/5000
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 Design of Channel Based on Kennedy’s Theory
Design Procedure: (Case-II) When Q, N, m and B/D are given:
• Calculate A in term of D ; Let B/D = x; or B = Dx
A = BD + ZD2 Let side slope =1/2 : 1 then A = BD + ½ D2 = D2x +0.5 D2 = D2(x+0.5)
• The value of V is known in terms of D by Kennedy’s equation. i.e => V = 0.55 m
0 0

D0.64
Substitute the values of V0 and A in the continuity equation and solve for
D Q =
So D =[A * V 0 = D (x+0.5) * 0.55mD
𝑄 2 0.64 = Q = 0.55m (x+0.5) D2.64

]1/2.64
0.55 𝑚 𝑥+0.5
In this equation Q, m, and x are known. Hence D is
determined Knowing D, calculate B and R from the following
2 /𝑍
relations
B = Dx and R = 𝐵𝐷+ 𝐷
𝐵+𝐷 √5
• Calculate the velocity V 0 from Kennedy’s equation V0 = 0.55 m D0.64 Knowing V0
and R,
• Determine the slope S and from Kutter’s flow equation. The equation can be solved
by trial and error
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Design of Channel Based on Kennedy’s Theory

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Kennedy’s Theory – Example (Case-II)

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Kennedy’s Theory – Example (Case-II)

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 Design of Channel Based on Kennedy’s Theory
Design Procedure: (Case-III) When S, N, m and B/D are Given:
1. From the B/D ratio, determine B in terms of D.
2. Determine A, P and R in terms of D.
3. From Kennedy’s equation, determine velocity (Vk) in terms of D.
4. Putting values of N, S and R in the Chezy’s equation and Kutter’s formula,
determine velocity (Vc). Simplify the expression, and solve it by trail and error for
D.
5. Knowing D, calculate B, A and Vk.
6. Using continuity equation, determine the discharge (Q).

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Kennedy’s Theory – Example (Case-III)

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Kennedy’s Theory – Example (Case-III)

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 Design of Alluvial Canals
Kennedy Silt Theory - Example
 Design of Alluvial Canals
Kennedy Silt Theory - Example
 Design of Alluvial Canals
Kennedy Silt Theory - Example
 Design of Alluvial Canals
Kennedy Silt Theory - Example
 Design of Alluvial Canals
Drawbacks
• Kennedy did not notice the importance of B/D ratio
• He aimed to find out only the average regime conditions for the
design of channels
• No account was taken of silt concentration and bed load, complex silt
phenomenon was incorporated in a single factor “m”
• Silt grade and silt charge are not defined
• No slope equation was given
• Kutter’s equation was used therefore limitations of Kutter’s equation
got incorporated in Kennedy’s design