Tinjauan Reproduksi

For every organism, there comes a time

when its powers of metabolism, growth,
and responsiveness are insufficient to
maintain its complex organization
against other forces.
Attact by predators, parasites, starvation,
other harmfull changes in the
environment.
This is accomplished with the production
of new individuals by the old beore the
old die.

Many of the major questions in biology

concern this ability of living things to
produce copies of themselves.
Two quite distinct methods of producing
offspring are found among living things.

One method is sexual reproduction.

This is the production of new individuals
that combine the hereditary information
contributed by two different cells,
generally representing two different
parents.
In most organism, these cells are the
gametes.

The other method of reproduction involves

only one parent; asexual reproduction.

The offspring are formed without the union

of two gemetes. Many plants engange in
both types of reproduction.
 Alternation Of Generations
• Sexual reproduction involves fertilization and
meiosis:
– In fertilization, the nuclei of two gametes fuse,
raising the chromosome number from haploid to
diploid.
– In Meiosis, the chromosome number is reduced
again from the diploid to the haploid conditiion.
– In plants, fertilization and meiosis divide life of
the organnism into two distinct phases or
“generation”.
• Gametophyte generation
– Begins with a spore produce by meiosis
– The spore is haploid and all the cells derived from
it are also haploid.
Sporophyte generation
– When two gametes fuse, the sporophyte generation
begins.
– Start with zygote, it contains the diploid number of
chromosome and all cells derived from it by
mitosis are also diploid.
 Alternation Of Generations
Development of mature Sporophyte Generation

Zygote
Fertilitation (2n) Meiosis

Gametes (n) Spores

Development of mature Gamethophyte Generation

 Asexual Reproduction

In asexual reproduction, an organism can

reproduce without the involvement of another
organism. Asexual reproduction is not limited
to single-celled organisms.

The cloning of an organism is a form of asexual

reproduction. By asexual reproduction, an
organism creates a genetically similar or
identical copy of itself.
 Asexual Reproduction

The evolution of sexual reproduction is a

major puzzle for biologists.

The two-fold cost of sexual reproduction is

that only 50% of organisms reproduce
and organisms only pass on 50% of
their genes
 Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a process by which
organisms create genetically similar or
identical copies of themselves without the
contribution of genetic material from another
organism.

Bacteria divide asexually via binary fission;

viruses take control of host cells to produce more

viruses;
 Asexual Reproduction
Hydras (invertebrates of the order Hydroidea) and
yeasts are able to reproduce by budding.

These organisms often do not possess different

sexes, and they are capable of "splitting"
themselves into two or more copies of
themselves.
 Asexual Reproduction

Most plants have the ability to reproduce

asexually and the ant species Mycocepurus
smithii is thought to reproduce entirely by
asexual means.
 Asexual Reproduction
Some species that are capable of reproducing
asexually, like hydra, yeast (See Mating of
yeasts) and jellyfish, may also reproduce
sexually.

For instance, most plants are capable of vegetative

reproduction—reproduction without seeds or
spores—but can also reproduce sexually.
Likewise, bacteria may exchange genetic
information by conjugation.
 Asexual Reproduction

Other ways of asexual reproduction include

parthenogenesis, fragmentation and
spore formation that involves only
mitosis.

Parthenogenesis is the growth and

development of embryo or seed without
fertilization by a male.
 Asexual Reproduction

Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some species,

including lower plants (where it is called
apomixis), invertebrates (e.g. water fleas,
aphids, some bees and parasitic wasps), and
vertebrates (e.g. some reptiles, fish, and, very
rarely, birds and sharks).
It is sometimes also used to describe reproduction
modes in hermaphroditic species which can
self-fertilize.
 Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction typically requires the sexual
interaction of two specialized organisms, called
gametes, which contain half the number of
chromosomes of normal cells and are created by
meiosis, with typically a male fertilizing a female of
the same species to create a fertilized zygote.

This produces offspring organisms whose genetic

characteristics are derived from those of the two
parental organisms.
 Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is a biological process that
creates a new organism by combining the
genetic material of two organisms in a process
that starts with meiosis, a specialized type of
cell division.

Each of two parent organisms contributes half of

the offspring's genetic makeup by creating
haploid gametes.
 Sexual Reproduction
Most organisms form two different types of
gametes. In these anisogamous species, the
two sexes are referred to as male (producing
sperm or microspores) and female (producing
ova or megaspores).

In isogamous species, the gametes are similar or

identical in form (isogametes), but may have
separable properties and then may be given
other different names (see isogamy).
 Sexual Reproduction
For example, in the green alga, Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii, there are so-called "plus" and
"minus" gametes.

A few types of organisms, such as many fungi and

the ciliate Paramecium aurelia, have more
than two "sexes", called syngens. Most
animals (including humans) and plants
reproduce sexually.
 Sexual Reproduction
Sexually reproducing organisms have different
sets of genes for every trait (called alleles).
Offspring inherit one allele for each trait from
each parent.

Thus, offspring have a combination of the parents'

genes. It is believed that "the masking of
deleterious alleles favors the evolution of a
dominant diploid phase in organisms that
alternate between haploid and diploid phases"
where recombination occurs freely.
 Sexual Reproduction

Allogamy is the fertilization of the

combination of gametes from two
parents, generally the ovum from one
individual with the spermatozoa of
another.
(In isogamous species, the two gametes
will not be defined as either sperm or
ovum.)
 Sexual Reproduction
Autogamy

Self-fertilization, also known as autogamy, occurs

in hermaphroditic organisms where the two
gametes fused in fertilization come from the same
individual, e.g., many vascular plants, some
foraminiferans, some ciliates.
 Sexual Reproduction
Autogamy

The term "autogamy" is sometimes substituted for

autogamous pollination (not necessarily leading to
successful fertilization) and describes self-pollination
within the same flower, distinguished from
geitonogamous pollination, transfer of pollen to a
different flower on the same flowering plant, or within a
single monoecious Gymnosperm plant.
 Sexual Reproduction
Mitosis and meiosis are types of cell division.
Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while meiosis
occurs in gametes.

Mitosis The resultant number of cells in mitosis is

twice the number of original cells. The number of
chromosomes in the offspring cells is the same as
that of the parent cell.
PROSES MITOSIS
 Sexual Reproduction
Meiosis The resultant number of cells is four times the
number of original cells. This results in cells with half the
number of chromosomes present in the parent cell. A
diploid cell duplicates itself, then undergoes two divisions
(tetraploid to diploid to haploid), in the process forming
four haploid cells.

This process occurs in two phases, meiosis I and meiosis

II.
 Same Sex

In recent decades, developmental biologists have

been researching and developing techniques to
facilitate same-sex reproduction.

The obvious approaches, subject to a growing

amount of activity, are female sperm and male
eggs, with female sperm closer to being a reality
for humans, given that Japanese scientists have
already created female sperm for chickens.
 Same Sex

"However, the ratio of produced W chromosome-

bearing (W-bearing) spermatozoa fell
substantially below expectations. It is therefore
concluded that most of the W-bearing PGC could
not differentiate into spermatozoa because of
restricted spermatogenesis.”
 Same-sex

In 2004, by altering the function of a few genes

involved with imprinting, other Japanese scientists
combined two mouse eggs to produce daughter
mice and in 2018 Chinese scientists created 29
female mice from two female mice mothers but
were unable to produce viable offspring from two
father mice.
 Strategis

• There are a wide range of reproductive

strategies employed by different species.
Some animals, such as the human and
northern gannet, do not reach sexual maturity
for many years after birth and even then
produce few offspring.
 Strategis

• Others reproduce quickly; but, under normal

circumstances, most offspring do not survive
to adulthood. For example, a rabbit (mature
after 8 months) can produce 10–30 offspring
per year, and a fruit fly (mature after 10–14
days) can produce up to 900 offspring per
year.)
 Strategis
These two main strategies are known as K-selection (few
offspring) and r-selection (many offspring). Which
strategy is favoured by evolution depends on a variety
of circumstances.

Animals with few offspring can devote more resources to

the nurturing and protection of each individual
offspring, thus reducing the need for many offspring.
 Strategis
On the other hand, animals with many offspring may
devote fewer resources to each individual offspring;
for these types of animals it is common for many
offspring to die soon after birth, but enough
individuals typically survive to maintain the
population.

Some organisms such as honey bees and fruit flies retain

sperm in a process called sperm storage thereby
increasing the duration of their fertility.