Module 3

Problem Solving
and
Reasoning
Topic 3 - 2

INTUITION, PROOF AND

CERTAINTY
 Specific Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Define and differentiate intuition, proof and

certainty.

2. Make use of intuition to solve problem.

3. Name and prove some mathematical statement

with the use of different kinds of proving.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 Sometimes, we tried to solve problem or problems in
mathematics even without using any mathematical
computation and we just simply observed, example a
pattern to be able on how to deal with the problem and
with this, we can come up with our decision with the use
of our intuition. On the other hand, we use another
method to solve problems in mathematics to come up with
a correct conclusion or conjecture with the help of
different types of proving where proofs is an example of
certainty.
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
A. INTUITION

There are a lot of definitions of an intuition and one of

these is that it is an immediate understanding or knowing
something without reasoning. It does not require a big
picture or full understanding of the problem, as it uses a lot
of small pieces of abstract information that you have in your
memory to create a reasoning leading to your decision just
from the limited information you have about the problem in
hand. Intuition comes from noticing, thinking and
questioning.
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 As a student, you can build and improve your
intuition by doing the following:

1. Be observant and see things visually with your

critical thinking.
2. Make your own manipulation on the things that
you have noticed and observed.
3. Do the right thinking and make connections with it
before doing the solution.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 1
Based on the given picture below, which among the two yellow lines is longer? Is it the
upper one or the lower one?

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 What are you going to do to be able to answer the
question? Your own intuition could help you to answer
the question correctly and come up with a correct
conclusion. For sure, the first thing that you are going to
do is to make a keen observation in the figure and you
will be asking yourself (starting to process your critical
thinking) which of these two yellow lines is longer
compare to other line or is it really the yellow line above
is more longer than the yellow line below? But what
would be the correct explanation?
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 The previous picture is called Ponzo illusion (1911).
There are two identical yellow lines drawn horizontally in a
railway track. If you will be observing these two yellow lines,
your mind tells you that the upper yellow line looks longer than
the below yellow line. But in reality, the two lines have equal
length. For sure, you will be using a ruler to be able to
determine which of the two is longer than the other one. The
exact reasoning could go like this. The upper yellow line looks
longer because of the converging sides of a railway. The farther
the line, it seems to look line longer than the other yellow line
below. Now, have you tried to use a ruler? What have you
noticed?
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Self-Learning Activity
Now, let us test your intuition. We have here a set of
problems. Make your own conclusion based on the given
problem without solving it mathematically.

Which of the two have the largest value? Explain it

accurately towards the correct conclusion.

103 ; 310

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
2. With your own intuition, which among the following has the largest
product? Explain in a precise manner.

34 x 12 = ; 21 x 43 = ; 54 x 31=
3. Look at the figure below. Are two lines a straight line? What is your
intuition?

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
B. Proof and Certainty
Another equally important lesson that the
student should be learned is on how to deal with
mathematical proof and certainty. By definition,
a proof is an inferential argument for
a mathematical statement while proofs are an
example of mathematical logical certainty.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 A mathematical proof is a list of statements in which every
statement is one of the following:
(1) an axiom
(2) derived from previous statements by a rule of inference
(3) a previously derived theorem
There is a hierarchy of terminology that gives opinions about the
importance of derived truths:
(1) A proposition is a theorem of lesser generality or of lesser
importance.
(2) A lemma is a theorem whose importance is mainly as a key step in
something deemed to be of greater significance.
(3) A corollary is a consequence of a theorem, usually one whose proof
is much easier than that of the theorem itself.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 METHODS OF PROOF

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 In methods of proof, basically we need or we have to
prove an existing mathematical theorem to be able to
determine if this theorem is true or false.

In addition, there is no need to prove any

mathematical definition simply because we assumed that
this is already true or this is basically true.
Usually, a theorem is in the form of an if-then statement.
So, in a certain theorem, it consists of hypothesis and
conclusion.
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 Let us say P and Q are two propositions. In an if-then statement,
proposition P would be the hypothesis while the proposition Q would be
our conclusion denoted by:
P→Q

Example:

If a triangle is a right triangle with sides a,

b, and c as hypotenuse, then a2 + b2 = c2.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
TWO WAYS ON HOW TO PRESENT THE PROOF

There are two ways on how to present a

proof. One is with the use of an outline form
and the other one is in a paragraph form. Either
of the two presentations could be used by the
student.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Outline Form

Proposition: If P then Q.
1. Suppose/Assume P
2. Statement
3. Statement
.
.
. Statement
Therefore Q . ■

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Paragraph Form

Proposition: If P then Q.

Assume/Suppose P. _______________________.
_________________________________________.
____________________. ___________________ .
_____________. _______________.
_________________. Therefore Q. ∎

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Illustration 1: Prove (in outline form) that “If x is a number with 5x + 3 = 33, then
x = 6”

Proof:
1. Assume that x is a number with 5x + 3 = 33.
2. Adding -3 both sides of an equation will not affect the equality
of the two members on an equation, thus 5x + 3 – 3 = 33 – 3
3. Simplifying both sides, we got 5x = 30.
4. Now, dividing both member of the equation by 5 will not be
affected the equality so 5x/5=30/5.
5. Working the equation algebraically, it shows that x = 6.
6. Therefore, if 5x + 3 = 33, then x = 6. ∎

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Illustration 2: Prove (in paragraph form) that “If x is a number with 5x + 3 = 33, then x = 6”

Proof:
If 5x + 3 = 33, then 5x + 3 − 3 = 33 − 3
since subtracting the same number from two equal quantities
gives equal results. 5x + 3 − 3 = 5x because adding 3 to 5x
and then subtracting 3 just leaves 5x, and also, 33 − 3 = 30.
Hence 5x = 30. That is, x is a number which when multiplied
by 5 equals 30. The only number with this property is 6.
Therefore, if 5x + 3 = 33 then x = 6. ∎
Note: It is up to the student which of the two forms would be their preferred presentation.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 KINDS OF PROOF

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
1. DIRECT PROOF

DEFINITION. A direct proof is a mathematical argument

that uses rules of inference to derive the conclusion from the
premises.
In a direct proof, let us say we need to prove a
given theorem in a form of P → Q. The steps in taking a direct
proof would be:

1. Assume P is true.
2. Conclusion is true.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 1: Prove that if x is an even integer, then
x2 – 6x + 5 is odd.
Proof: (by outline form)
1. Assume that x is an even integer.
2. By definition of an even integer, x = 2a for some a
∈ Z.
3. So, x2 – 6x + 5 = (2a)2 – 6(2a) + 5 = 4a2 – 12a + 4
+ 1 = 2(2a2 – 6a + 2) + 1 where 2a2 – 6a + 2 ∈ k.
4. Therefore, 2(2a2 – 6a + 2) + 1 = 2k + 1, so x 2 – 6x
+ 5 is odd. ∎
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 2: With the use of direct proving, prove the following in both
form (outline and paragraph).
Prove: (in an outline form)
If a and b are both odd integers, then the sum of a and b is an
even integer.
Proof:
1. Assume that a and b are both odd integers.
2. There exists an integer k1 and k2 such that a = 2k1 + 1 and b = 2k2 + 1 (by
definition of an odd number).
3. Now, a + b = (2k1 + 1) + (2k2 + 1) = 2k1 + 2k2 + 2. Factoring 2, it follows
that a + b = 2(k1 + k2 + 1).
4. So; a + b = 2(k1 + k2 + 1). Let k1 + k2 + 1 = k ∈ Z, hence a + b = 2k.
5. Therefore, if a and b are both odd integers, then a + b is even. ∎
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Prove: (in paragraph form)
Assume that a and b are both odd integers. By
definition of an odd number, there exists an integer k1 and
k2 such that a = 2k1 + 1 and b = 2k2 + 1. Now, adding a and
b, that is, a + b = (2k1 + 1) + (2k2 + 1) = 2k1 + 2k2 + 2.
Factoring 2, it follows that a + b = 2(k1 + k2 + 1). So; a + b
= 2(k1 + k2 + 1) and let k1 + k2 + 1 = k ∈ Z, hence a + b =
2k. Therefore, if a and b are both odd integers, their sum is
always an even integer. ∎
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 3: With the use of direct proving, prove the following in
paragraph form.
Prove:
If x and y are two odd integers, then the product of x and y is also
an odd integer.
Proof:
Assume that x and y are two different odd integers. There exists k1
and k2 ∈ Z such that x = 2k1 + 1 and y = 2k2 + 1 by definition of an odd
number. Now, taking the product of x and y, we got xy = (2k 1 + 1)(2k2 + 1)
= 4k1k2 + 2k1 + 2k2 + 1 = 2(2k1k2 + k1 + k2) + 1. Let 2k1k2 + k1 + k2 = k ∈
Z. Hence (2k1+1)(2k2+1) = 2k + 1. Therefore, xy = 2k + 1 where the
product of two odd integers is also an odd integer. ∎

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 4. Prove the proposition (in outline form) that is “
If x is a positive integer, then x2 is also an odd integer”.
Prove: (In outline form)
1. Suppose x is odd.
2. Then by definition of an odd integer, x = 2a + 1 for some a ∈ Z.
3. Thus x2 = (2a + 1)2 = 4a2 + 4a +1 = 2(2a2 + a) + 1.
4. So x2 = 2b+1 where b is the integer b = 2a 2 + 2a.
5. Thus x2 = 2b + 1 for an integer b.
6. Therefore x2 is odd, by definition of an odd number. ∎

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 5. Prove: Let a,b and c be integers. If a| b and b | c,
then a | c.
Proof (in outline form)
1. Suppose a, b and c are integers and a | b and b | c.
2. We all know that if a | b, there is a certain integer say d
which is b = ad.
3. Similarly, when b | c, there is an integer say e which is c =
be.
4. Now, since b = ad, substitute the value of b in c = be, it
follows that c = (ad)e = a(de).
5. So, c = a(de) = ax for x = de ∈Z.
6. Therefore a | c. ∎
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Self-Learning Activity

Direction: Prove the following propositions with the use of direct proving. Show your
answer on the space provided after each item.

1. If a is an odd integer, then a2 +3a + 5 is odd.

2. Suppose x, y ∈ Z. If x3 and y3 are odd, then (xy)3 is odd.

3. Suppose x, y ∈ Z. If x is even, then xy is even.

4. If n – m is even, then n2 – m2 is also an even.

5. If x is an odd positive integer then x2 – 1 is divisible by 4.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Self-Learning Activity

Direction: Prove the following propositions with the use of direct proving. Show your
answer on the space provided after each item.

6. Suppose a,b, c ∈ Z. If a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c).

7. Suppose a,b, c,d ∈ Z. If a | b and c | d, then ac | bd.

8. If n ∈ Z, then 5n 2 +3n+7 is odd. (Try cases.)

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
B. INDIRECT PROOF

Indirect proof or contrapositive proof is a type of

proof in which a statement to be proved is assumed false
and if the assumption leads to an impossibility, then the
statement assumed false has been proved to be true.
Recall that the proposition p→q is a
conditional statement. This proposition is logically
equivalent to ~q →~p. Now, the expression ~q →~p is
the contrapositive form of the statement p →q.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 In an indirect proof, let us say we need to prove a
given theorem in a form of P → Q. The steps or outline in taking
an indirect proof would be:

Assume/Suppose ~Q is true.
.
.
.

Therefore ~P is true. ∎

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 1. Using indirect/contrapositive proof, prove that “If x is divisible by 6, then x is divisible by
3”.

Here in example 1, we let that p : x is divisible by 6 and q : x is divisible by 3. So, this original
statement to become a contrapositive could be transformed into “If x is not divisible by 3, then x is not
divisible by 6”.

Note that, we let p: x is divisible by 6 and q: x is divisible by 3. With the use of indirect proof, we
assume that ~q is true and the conclusion ~p is also true.

So, the formal proof would be;

Proof:
1. Assume x is not divisible by 3.
2. Then x ≠ 3k for all k ∈ Z
3. It follows that x ≠ (2m)(3) for all m ∈ Z
4. So, x ≠ 6m for all m ∈ Z
5. Therefore, x is not divisible by 6. ■

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 2: Prove using indirect proof of contraposition.

Let x be an integer. Prove that, if x2 is even, then x is even.

Note that, we let p: x2 is even and q: x is even. With the use of indirect proof, we assume that ~q
is true and the conclusion ~p is also true.

So, the original statement would become “If x is odd, then x 2 is odd”.

Now, the formal proof would be;

Proof:

1. Assume x is odd.
2. Then x = 2k + 1 for some k ∈ Z
3. It follows that x2 =(2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1 where q = 2k2 + 2k
4. So, x2 = 2q + 1
5. Therefore, x2 is odd. ∎

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Self-Learning Activity

Direction: Prove the following propositions with the use of indirect proving.
Show your answer on the space provided after each item.

1. If n2 is even, then n is even.

2. If x = 2, then 3x  10.

3. If n3 + 5 is odd, then n is even.

4. If 3n + 7 is odd, then n is even.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Self-Learning Activity

Direction: Prove the following propositions with the use of indirect proving.
Show your answer on the space provided after each item.

1. If a is an even integer and b is odd integer, then a + b is odd integer.

2. If n is an odd integer, then n3 + 2n2 is also an odd integer.

3. If n – m is even, then n2 – m2 is also an even.

4. If x is an odd positive integer then x2 – 1 is divisible by 4.

5. If x is an odd integer, then 8 is a factor of x2 – 1.

6. Suppose x, y ∈ Z. If x is even, then xy is even.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
3. Proof by Counterexample

A conjecture may be described as a statement that we hope is a

theorem. As we know, many theorems (hence many conjectures) are
universally quantified statements. Thus it seems reasonable to begin our
discussion by investigating how to disprove a universally quantified
statement such as;
∀x ∈ S,P(x).

To disprove this statement, we must prove its negation. Its negation

is:
∼ (∀x ∈ S,P(x)) = ∃ x ∈ S,∼ P(x).

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 Things are even simpler if we want to disprove a conditional
statement P(x) ⇒ Q(x). This statement asserts that for every x that
makes P(x) true, Q(x) will also be true. The statement can only be
false if there is an x that makes P(x) true and Q(x) false. This leads
to our next outline for disproof.

The question is “How to disprove P(x) ⇒ Q(x)”? The answer

is simple. Produce an example of an x that makes P(x) true and
Q(x) false.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 In both of the previous outlines, the statement
is disproved simply by exhibiting an example that
shows the statement is not always true. (Think of it
as an example that proves the statement is a promise
that can be broken.)

There is a special name for an example that

disproves a statement: It is called a
counterexample.
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 Example 1. Prove or disprove: All prime numbers are
odd.
*Negation : Some prime numbers are even.

By counterexample: Let n = 2. By definition of a

prime, 2 = (2)·(1). But 2 is even where the only factor of
2 is 2 and 1 so we could say that 2 is a prime number.

Since we have found an even prime number so the

original statement is not true. ∎
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 2. Prove or disprove: For all integers x and y, if x + y is
even, then both x and y are even.
*Negation : For some integers x and y,if x + y is odd, then x and y
is odd.

Proof: ∀(x)∀(y): x + y = 2k1 + 2k2, for k ∈Z

∃x ∃y: x + y = 2k1+ 1 + 2k2 + 1
= 2k1+ 2k2 + 2
= 2(k1 + k2 + 1)
By giving a counterexample, if x = 1 and y = 1, then x + y =
2. But x and y are both odd, therefore the theorem is false. ■
Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Self-Learning Activity

Direction: Prove the following propositions with the use of counter-

example. Show your answer on the space provided after each item.

1. Prove: For all integers n which are multiples of 3 are multiples of 6.

2. Prove: For all real numbers a and b, if a2 = b2, then a = b.

3. Prove: For all positive integers n, n2 – n + 41 is prime.

4. Prove: For all positive integers n, 22n + 1 is prime.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
4. Proof by Contradiction

Another method of proving is what we called “Proving by

Contradiction”. This method works by assuming your implication is not
true, then deriving a contradiction.
Recall that if p is false then p → q is always true, thus the only way
our implication can be false is if p is true and q is false.
So, if we let p → q be a theorem, a proof by contradiction is given
by this way; The three key pieces:
1. Assume p is true. 1. State that the proof is contradiction.
2. State what the negation of the original statement is.
2. Suppose that ~q is also true. 3. State you have reached a contradiction and what the
3. Try to arrive at a contradiction. contradiction entails.
4. Therefore q is true ■ You must include this steps in your proof!

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
 So, in practice then, we assume our premise is true but
our conclusion is false and use these assumptions to derive a
contradiction.
This contradiction may be a violation of a law or a previously
established result. Having derived the contradiction you can then
conclude that your assumption (that p → q is false) was false and so
the implication is true.
Be careful with this method: make sure that the contradiction
arises because of your original assumptions, not because of a
mistake in method. Also, if you end up proving ~p then you could
have used proof by contraposition.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 1: Prove by contradiction that “If x + x = x, then x = 0.

Proof:
1. Assume that x + x = x.
2. Suppose that x ≠ 0.
3. Now, x + x = x, so 2x = x and since x ≠ 0, we could multiply
both sides of the equation by the reciprocal of x, i.e., 1/x.
4. Multiplying by the reciprocal of x, it follows that 2 = 1 which
is a contradiction.
5. Therefore, the original implication is proven to be true. ∎

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Example 2: Prove by contradiction that “If x is even then x + 3 is odd.

Proof:
1. Assume x is even, so x = 2k.
2. Suppose x + 3 is even. Since x + 3 is even, there exist k ∈Z such
that x + 3 = 2k.
3. It follows that x = 2k -3. We can rewrite this as x = 2k – 4 + 1.
4. Now, x = 2(k – 2) + 1. Let k – 2 = q.
5. So, x = 2q + 1. It is clearly seen that x is an odd number. This is a
contradiction to the assumption.
6. Therefore, x + 3 is odd. ∎

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)
Self-Learning Activity

Direction: Prove the following propositions with the use of

contradiction. Show your answer on the space provided after
each item.

1. There are no natural number solutions to the

equation x2 - y2 = 1.

2. For all integers n, if n3 + 5 is odd then n is even.

3. If x2 is irrational then x is irrational.

Module 3 | Topic 3-2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning (Intuition, Proof and Certainty)