PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Meg Flemming
Austin Community College

CHAPTER 8
The Nervous
System

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System
(Introduction)
• The nervous system and endocrine system
coordinate other organ systems to maintain
homeostasis
• The nervous system is fast, short acting

• The endocrine system is slower, but longer lasting

• The nervous system is the most complex system

in the body

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 Functions of the Nervous System (8-1)

• Monitors the body's internal and external

environments
• Integrates sensory information

• Coordinates voluntary and involuntary responses

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 Divisions of the Nervous System (8-1)

• Anatomical divisions are:

• The central nervous system (CNS)
• Made up of the brain and spinal cord

• Integrates and coordinates input and output

• The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

• All the neural tissues outside of the CNS

• The connection between the CNS and the organs

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 Divisions of the Nervous System (8-1)

• Functional divisions are:

• The afferent division
• Includes sensory receptors and neurons that send
information to the CNS

• The efferent division

• Includes neurons that send information to the effectors,
which are the muscles and glands

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 Efferent Division of the Nervous System (8-1)

• Further divided into:

• The somatic nervous system (SNS)
• Controls skeletal muscle

• The autonomic nervous system (ANS)

• Controls smooth and cardiac muscle, and glands
• Has two parts

1. Sympathetic division

2. Parasympathetic division

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 Figure 8-1 A Functional Overview of the Nervous System.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Information
processing

PERIPHERAL Sensory information Motor commands

NERVOUS within within
SYSTEM afferent division efferent division
includes

Somatic Autonomic
nervous nervous system
system

Parasympathetic Sympathetic
division division

Receptors Effectors
Smooth
muscle
Somatic sensory Visceral sensory Skeletal
receptors (monitor receptors (monitor muscle Cardiac
the outside world internal conditions muscle
and our position and the status Glands
in it) of other organ
systems)

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 Neurons (8-2)
• Cells that communicate with one another and other cells

• Associated with neuroglia – regulate environment around the

neurons
• Basic structure of a neuron includes:
• Cell body

• Dendrites

• Which receive signals

• Axons

• Which carry signals to the next cell

• Axon terminals
• Bulb-shaped endings that form a synapse with the next cell

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 Neurons (8-2)

• Have a very limited ability to regenerate when

damaged or destroyed
• Cell bodies contain:
• Mitochondria, free and fixed ribosomes, and rough
endoplasmic reticulum
• Free ribosomes and RER form Nissl bodies and give the
tissue a gray color (gray matter)

• The axon hillock

• Where electrical signal begins
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 Figure 8-2 The Anatomy of a Representative Neuron.

Cell body
Mitochondrion
Golgi apparatus
Axon hillock Axon terminals
Dendrite Collateral

Nucleus
Axon (may be myelinated)
Nucleolus
Nerve cell body
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Axon hillock
Nissl bodies
Nissl bodies

Nerve cell body

LM x 1500

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 Structural Classification of Neurons (8-2)

• Based on the relationship of the dendrites to the cell body

• Multipolar neurons
• Are the most common in the CNS and have two or more dendrites and
one axon

• Unipolar neurons
• Have the cell body off to one side, most abundant in the afferent
division

• Bipolar neurons
• Have one dendrite and one axon with the cell body in the middle, and
are rare

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 Figure 8-3 A Structural Classification of Neurons.

Multipolar neuron

Unipolar neuron

Bipolar neuron
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 Sensory Neurons (8-2)

• Also called afferent neurons

• Total 10 million or more

• Receive information from sensory receptors

• Somatic sensory receptors
• Detect stimuli concerning the outside world, in the form of
external receptors
• And our position in it, in the form of proprioceptors

• Visceral or internal receptors

• Monitor the internal organs

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 Motor Neurons (8-2)

• Also called efferent neurons

• Total about half a million in number

• Carry information to peripheral targets called

effectors
• Somatic motor neurons
• Innervate skeletal muscle

• Visceral motor neurons

• Innervate cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands
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 Interneurons (8-2)

• Also called association neurons

• By far the most numerous type at about 20 billion

• Are located in the CNS

• Function as links between sensory and motor

processes
• Have higher functions
• Such as memory, planning, and learning

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 Neuroglial Cells (8-2)

• Are supportive cells and make up about half of all neural

tissue
• Four types are found in the CNS
1. Astrocytes
2. Oligodendrocytes
3. Microglia
4. Ependymal cells

• Two types in the PNS

1. Satellite cells
2. Schwann cells

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 Astrocytes (8-2)

• Large and numerous neuroglia in the CNS

• Maintain the blood–brain barrier (isolates CNS

from general circulation)
• Create structural framework for CNS neurons

• Perform repairs in damaged neural tissues

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 Oligodendrocytes (8-2)

• Found in the CNS

• Produce an insulating membranous wrapping

around axons called myelin
• Small gaps between the wrappings called nodes of Ranvier

• Myelinated axons constitute the white matter of

the CNS
• Where cell bodies are gray matter

• Some axons are unmyelinated

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 Microglia (8-2)

• The smallest and least numerous

• Phagocytic cells derived from white blood cells

• Perform essential protective functions such as

engulfing pathogens and cellular waste

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 Ependymal Cells (8-2)

• Line the fluid-filled central canal of the spinal cord

and the ventricles of the brain
• The endothelial lining is called the ependyma

• It is involved in producing and circulating

cerebrospinal fluid around the CNS

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 Figure 8-4 Neuroglia in the CNS.

Gray matter
White matter

CENTRAL
CANAL
Ependymal
cells

Gray
matter

Neurons
Myelinated
axons
Microglial
cell
Inter-
node Myelin
(cut)
Astrocyte
White Axon Oligoden-
matter Node drocyte

Basement
Capillary membrane
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 Neuroglial Cells in PNS (8-2)

• Satellite cells
• Surround and support neuron cell bodies

• Similar in function to the astrocytes in the CNS

• Schwann cells
• Cover every axon in PNS

• The surface is the neurilemma

• Produce myelin

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 Figure 8-5 Schwann Cells and Peripheral Axons.

Nodes

Schwann cell nucleus

Myelin covering
internode
Neurilemma

Axons

Schwann
cell nucleus

Myelinated axon TEM x 14,048

A myelinated axon in the

PNS is covered by several
Schwann cells, each of
which forms a myelin sheath
around a portion of the axon. Unmyelinated TEM x 14,048
axon
This arrangement differs
from the way myelin forms in A single Schwann cell can
the CNS; compare with encircle several unmy-
Figure 8-4. elinated axons. Every axon
in the PNS is completely
enclosed by Schwann
cells.
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 Organization of the Nervous System (8-2)

• In the PNS:
• Collections of nerve cell bodies are ganglia

• Bundled axons are nerves

• Including spinal nerves and cranial nerves

• Can have both sensory and motor components

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 Organization of the Nervous System (8-2)

• In the CNS:
• Collections of neuron cell bodies are found in centers,
or nuclei
• Neural cortex is a thick layer of gray matter

• White matter in the CNS is formed by bundles of axons

called tracts, and in the spinal cord, form columns
• Pathways are either sensory or ascending tracts, or
motor or descending tracts

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 Figure 8-6 The Anatomical Organization of the Nervous System.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
GRAY MATTER ORGANIZATION
Neural Cortex Centers
PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM Gray matter on Collections of
the surface of neuron cell bodies
GRAY MATTER the brain in the CNS; each
center has specific
Ganglia processing
Collections of Nuclei functions
neuron cell Collections of
bodies in the PNS neuron cell Higher Centers
bodies in the The most complex
interior of the centers in the
WHITE MATTER brain
CNS
Nerves
Bundles of axons WHITE MATTER ORGANIZATION
in the PNS Tracts Columns
Bundles of CNS Several tracts
axons that share that form an
RECEPTORS a common origin, anatomically
destination, and distinct mass
function

PATHWAYS
Centers and tracts that connect
the brain with other organs and
EFFECTORS systems in the body
Ascending (sensory) pathway
Descending (motor) pathway
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 The Membrane Potential (8-3)

• A membrane potential exists because of:

• Excessive positive ionic charges on the outside of the
cell
• Excessive negative charges on the inside, creating a
polarized membrane
• An undisturbed cell has a resting membrane potential
measured in the inside of the cell in millivolts
• The resting membrane potential of neurons is –70 mV

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 Factors Determining Membrane Potential (8-3)

• Extracellular fluid (ECF) is high in Na+ and CI–

• Intracellular fluid (ICF) is high in K+ and negatively charged

proteins (Pr –)
• Proteins are non-permeating, staying in the ICF

• Some ion channels are always open

• Called leak channels

• Some are open or closed

• Called gated channels

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 Factors Determining Membrane Potential (8-3)

• Na+ can leak in

• But the membrane is more permeable to K+
• Allowing K+ to leak out faster

• Na+/K+ exchange pump exchanges 3 Na+ for every

2 K+
• Moving Na+ out as fast as it leaks in

• Cell experiences a net loss of positive ions

• Resulting in a resting membrane charge of –70 mV

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 Figure 8-7 The Resting Potential Is the Membrane Potential of an Undisturbed Cell.

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID

–70 –30 0
+30
mV
Na+ leak
K+ leak channel
channel

Sodium–
Plasma potassium
membrane exchange
pump

CYTOSOL

Protein
KEY
Sodium ion (Na+)
Protein Protein Potassium ion (K+)

Chloride ion (Cl–)

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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Changes in Membrane Potential (8-3)

• Stimuli alter membrane permeability to Na + or K+

• Or alter activity of the exchange pump

• Types include:
• Cellular exposure to chemicals

• Mechanical pressure

• Temperature changes

• Changes in the ECF ion concentration

• Result is opening of a gated channel

• Increasing the movement of ions across the membrane

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 Changes in Membrane Potential (8-3)

• Opening of Na+ channels results in an influx of Na +

• Moving the membrane toward 0 mV, a shift called
depolarization

• Opening of K+ channels results in an efflux of K +

• Moving the membrane further away from 0 mV, a shift
called hyperpolarization

• Return to resting from depolarization: repolarizing

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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Graded Potentials (8-3)

• Local changes in the membrane that fade over

distance
• All cells experience graded potentials when
stimulated
• And can result in the activation of smaller cells

• Graded potentials by themselves cannot trigger

activation of large neurons and muscle fibers
• Referred to as having excitable membranes
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 Action Potentials (8-3)

• A change in the membrane that travels the entire

length of neurons
• A nerve impulse

• If a combination of graded potentials causes the

membrane to reach a critical point of
depolarization, it is called the threshold
• Then an action potential will occur

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 Action Potentials (8-3)

• Are all-or-none and will propagate down the

length of the neuron
• From the time the voltage-gated channels open
until repolarization is finished:
• The membrane cannot respond to further stimulation

• This period of time is the refractory period

• And limits the rate of response by neurons

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 Figure 8-8 The Generation of an Action Potential

FIGURE 8-8

SPOTLIGHT The Generation of an Action Potential

Sodium channels close,
voltage-gated potassium channels
open, and potassium ions move out
of the cell. Repolarization begins.

+30 3
DEPOLARIZATION REPOLARIZATION
0
Potassium channels

Membrane potential (mV)

close, and both sodium
Resting 2 and potassium
potential channels return to their
–40 Voltage-gated sodium
normal states.
channels open and
–60 Threshold sodium ions move
–70 1 into the cell. The
Axon hillock membrane potential 4
A graded
rises to +30 mV.
depolarization
First part of axon to
brings an area of
reach threshold
excitable membrane REFRACTORY PERIOD
to threshold (–60 During the refractory period,
mV). the membrane cannot respond
to further stimulation.
0 Time (msec) 1 2

1 Depolarization to
2 Activation of Sodium
3 Inactivation of Sodium
4 Closing of Potassium
Resting Threshold Channels and Rapid Channels and Channels Resting
Potential Depolarization Activation Potential
of Potassium Channels
–70 mV –60 mV +10 mV –90 mV –70 mV
+30 mV

Local
current

The axon membrane The stimulus that When the voltage-gated As the membrane The voltage-gated sodium As the voltage-gated
contains both begins an action sodium channels open, potential approaches channels remain potassium channels
voltage-gated sodium potential is a graded sodium ions rush into the +30 mV, voltage-gated inactivated until the close, the
channels and depolarization large cytoplasm, and rapid sodium channels close. membrane has repolar- membrane potential
voltage-gated enough to open depolarization occurs. This step coincides with ized to near threshold returns to normal
potassium channels voltage-gated sodium The inner membrane the opening of voltage- levels. The voltage-gated resting levels. The
that are closed when channels. The opening surface now contains gated potassium potassium channels action potential is
the membrane is at the of the channels occurs more positive ions than channels. Positively begin closing as the now over, and the
resting potential. at a membrane potential negative ones, and the charged potassium ions membrane reaches the membrane is once
known as the threshold. membrane potential has move out of the cytosol, normal resting potential again at the resting
changed from –60 mV shifting the membrane (about –70 mV). Until all potential.
to a positive value. potential back toward have closed, potassium
resting levels. Repolariza- ions continue to leave the
= Sodium ion
= Potassium ion
tion now begins. cell. This produces a brief
hyperpolarization.

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 Figure 8-8 The Generation of an Action Potential

Sodium channels close, voltage-

gated potassium channels open,
and potassium ions move out of the
cell. Repolarization begins.

+30 3
D E P O L A R I Z AT I O N R E P O L A R I Z AT I O N
0
Membrane potential (mV)

Resting 2
potential Voltage-gated sodium
Potassium channels
–40 close, and both sodium
channels open and
and potassium chan-
sodium ions move into
Threshold nels return to their
–60 the cell. The membrane
normal states.
–70 1 potential rises to +30
mV.
A graded
4
depolarization brings
an area of excitable
membrane to thresh-
old (–60 mV). REFRACTORY PERIOD
During the refractory period,
the membrane cannot
respond to further stimulation.
0 Time (msec) 1 2
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 Figure 8-8 The Generation of an Action Potential

Resting Potential
Depolarization to Activation of Sodium
Threshold Channels and Rapid
–70 mV Depolarization

–60 mV +10 mV

Local
current
The axon membrane
contains both
voltage-gated sodium
The stimulus that When the voltage-gated
channels and begins an action
voltage-gated sodium channels open,
potential is a graded sodium ions rush into the
potassium channels depolarization large cytoplasm, and rapid
that are closed when enough to open
voltage-gated sodium depolarization occurs.
the membrane is at the
channels. The opening The inner membrane
resting potential. surface now contains
of the channels occurs
at a membrane potential more positive ions than
known as the threshold. negative ones, and the
membrane potential has
changed from
= Sodium ion –60 mV to a positive
= Potassium ion value.

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 Figure 8-8 The Generation of an Action Potential

Inactivation of Sodium Closing of Potas-

Resting
Channels and
Activation of Potassium
sium Channels Potential
Channels
–70 mV
–90 mV
+30 mV

The voltage-gated sodium

As the membrane
channels remain As the voltage-gated
potential approaches
inactivated until the potassium channels
+30 mV, voltage-gated
membrane has repolar- close, the mem-
sodium channels close.
ized to near threshold brane potential re-
This step coincides with
levels. The voltage-gated turns to normal rest-
the opening of voltage-
potassium channels ing levels. The
gated potassium
begin closing as the action potential is
channels. Positively
membrane reaches the now over, and the
charged potassium ions
normal resting potential membrane is once
move out of the cytosol,
(about –70 mV). Until all again at the resting
shifting the membrane
have closed, potassium potential.
potential back toward
ions continue to leave the
resting levels. Repolariza-
cell. This produces a brief
tion now begins.
hyperpolarization.

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 Propagation of an Action Potential (8-3)

• Occurs when local changes in the membrane in

one site:
• Result in the activation of voltage-gated channels in the next
adjacent site of the membrane

• This causes a wave of membrane potential

changes
• Continuous propagation
• Occurs in unmyelinated fibers and is relatively slow

• Saltatory propagation
• Is in myelinated axons and is faster
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 Figure 8-9 The Propagation of Action Potentials over Unmyelinated and Myelinated Axons.

Action potential propagation along an Action potential propagation along a

unmyelinated axon myelinated axon

Stimulus Stimulus
depolarizes depolarizes
membrane to membrane to
threshold threshold EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID

Myelinated Myelinated Myelinated

Internode Internode Internode
Plasma membrane CYTOSOL Plasma membrane CYTOSOL

Myelinated Myelinated Myelinated

Internode Internode Internode
Local current

Myelinated Myelinated Myelinated

Internode Internode Internode
Local current
Repolarization Repolarization
(refractory period) (refractory period)

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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Synapse (8-4)

• A junction between a neuron and another cell

• Occurs because of chemical messengers called

neurotransmitters
• Communication happens in one direction only

• Between a neuron and another cell type is a neuroeffector

junction
• Such as the neuromuscular junction or neuroglandular junction

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 A Synapse between Two Neurons (8-4)

• Occurs:
• Between the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron

• Across the synaptic cleft

• To the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron

• Neurotransmitters
• Stored in vesicles of the axon terminals

• Released into the cleft and bind to receptors on the

postsynaptic membrane
PLAY ANIMATION Neurophysiology: Synapse
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 Figure 8-10 The Structure of a Typical Synapse.

Axon of
presynaptic cell

Axon
terminal
Mitochondrion

Synaptic
vesicles

Presynaptic
membrane

Postsynaptic Synaptic
membrane cleft
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 The Neurotransmitter ACh (8-4)

• Activates cholinergic synapses in four steps

1. Action potential arrives at the axon terminal

2. ACh is released and diffuses across synaptic cleft

3. ACh binds to receptors and triggers depolarization of

the postsynaptic membrane

4. ACh is removed by AChE (acetylcholinesterase)

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 Figure 8-11 The Events at a Cholinergic Synapse.

An action potential arrives and

depolarizes the axon terminal
Presynaptic Action potential
neuron EXTRACELLULAR
Synaptic
vesicles FLUID
Axon
terminal

AChE

POSTSYNAPTIC
NEURON

Extracellular Ca2+ enters the axon

terminal, triggering the exocytosis of ACh

ACh

Ca2+ Ca2+ Synaptic cleft

Chemically regulated
sodium ion channels

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 Figure 8-11 The Events at a Cholinergic Synapse.

ACh binds to receptors and depolarizes

the postsynaptic membrane

Initiation of
action potential
if threshold is
reached

ACh is removed by AChE

Propagation of
action potential
(if generated)

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 Table 8-1 The Sequence of Events at a Typical Cholinergic Synapse

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 Other Important Neurotransmitters (8-4)

• Norepinephrine (NE)
• In the brain and part of the ANS, is found in adrenergic
synapses

• Dopamine, GABA, and serotonin

• Are CNS neurotransmitters

• At least 50 less-understood neurotransmitters

• NO and CO
• Are gases that act as neurotransmitters

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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Synapses (8-4)

• Usually, ACh and NE trigger depolarization

• An excitatory response

• With the potential of reaching threshold

• Usually, dopamine, GABA, and serotonin trigger

hyperpolarization
• An inhibitory response

• Making it farther from threshold

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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Neuronal Pools (8-4)

• Multiple presynaptic neurons can synapse with

one postsynaptic neuron
• If they all release excitatory neurotransmitters:

• Then an action potential can be triggered

• If they all release an inhibitory neurotransmitter:

• Then no action potential can occur

• If half release excitatory and half inhibitory neurotransmitters:

• They cancel, resulting in no action

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 Neuronal Pools (8-4)

• A term that describes the complex grouping of

neural pathways or circuits
• Divergence
• Is a pathway that spreads information from one neuron
to multiple neurons

• Convergence
• Is when several neurons synapse with a single
postsynaptic neuron
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 Figure 8-12 Two Common Types of Neuronal Pools.

Divergence Convergence

A mechanism for A mechanism for providing

spreading stimulation to input to a single neuron from
multiple neurons or multiple sources
neuronal pools in the
CNS

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 The Meninges (8-5)

• The neural tissue in the CNS is protected by

three layers of specialized membranes
1. Dura mater

2. Arachnoid

3. Pia mater

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 The Dura Mater (8-5)

• Is the outer, very tough covering

• The dura mater has two layers, with the outer layer
fused to the periosteum of the skull
• Dural folds contain large veins, the dural sinuses

• In the spinal cord the dura mater is separated from the

bone by the epidural space

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 The Arachnoid

• Is separated from the dura mater by the subdural

space
• That contains a little lymphatic fluid

• Below the epithelial layer is arachnoid space

• Created by a web of collagen fibers

• Contains cerebrospinal fluid

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 The Pia Mater

• Is the innermost layer

• Firmly bound to the neural tissue underneath

• Highly vascularized
• Providing needed oxygen and nutrients

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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Spinal Cord Structure (8-6)

• The major neural pathway between the brain and

the PNS
• Can also act as an integrator in the spinal reflexes
• Involving the 31 pairs of spinal nerves

• Consistent in diameter except for the cervical

enlargement and lumbar enlargement
• Where numerous nerves supply upper and lower limbs

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 Spinal Cord Structure (8-6)

• Central canal
• A narrow passage containing cerebrospinal fluid

• Surface of the spinal cord is indented by the:

• Posterior median sulcus

• Deeper anterior median fissure

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 31 Spinal Segments (8-6)

• Identified by a letter and number relating to the

nearby vertebrae
• Each has a pair of dorsal root ganglia
• Containing the cell bodies of sensory neurons with
axons in dorsal root

• Ventral roots contain motor neuron axons

• Roots are contained in one spinal nerve

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 Figure 8-14a Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord.

C1
C2
Cervical spinal C3
C4
nerves C5
C6
C7
Cervical
C8 enlargement
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
Thoracic T8
spinal Posterior
T9
nerves median sulcus
T10
T11 Lumbar
T12 enlargement
L1
Inferior tip of
L2
spinal cord
Lumbar L3
spinal
nerves L4 Cauda equina
L5

S1
Sacral spinal S2
nerves S3
S4
S5
Coccygeal
nerve (Co1)

In this superficial view of the

adult spinal cord, the
designations to the left identify
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 Figure 8-14b Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord.

Posterior median sulcus

Dorsal root
Dorsal root
ganglion

Central Gray
canal matter

White matter
Spinal Ventral
nerve root Anterior median fissure
C3
This cross section through the
cervical region of the spinal cord
shows some prominent features and
the arrangement of gray matter and
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. white matter.
 Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord (8-6)

• The central gray matter is made up of glial cells

and nerve cell bodies
• Projections of gray matter are called horns
• Which extend out into the white matter

• White matter is myelinated and unmyelinated

axons
• The location of cell bodies in specific nuclei of the
gray matter relate to their function
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 Figure 8-15a Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord.

Posterior white column Posterior

median sulcus Functional Organization
Posterior gray of Gray Matter
commissure
The cell bodies of neurons in the
gray matter of the spinal cord are
organized into functional groups
Posterior called nuclei.
gray horn Somatic
Lateral Lateral Sensory nuclei
Visceral
Dorsal root white gray horn
ganglion column Visceral
Anterior Motor nuclei
Somatic
gray
horn

Ventral root
Anterior gray commissure
Anterior white column Anterior white commissure
Anterior median fissure
The left half of this sectional view shows important anatomical landmarks, including the
three columns of white matter. The right half indicates the functional organization of the
nuclei in the anterior, lateral, and posterior gray horns.

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 Figure 8-15b Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord.

POSTERIOR Structural Organization

Posterior of Gray Matter
median sulcus The projections of gray matter
Posterior gray toward the outer surface of the
commissure spinal cord are called horns.
Dura mater Posterior gray horn
Arachnoid mater Lateral gray horn
(broken)
Dorsal
Central canal root
Anterior gray Anterior gray horn
commissure
Anterior median
fissure Dorsal root
ganglion
ANTERIOR
Pia mater Ventral root

A micrograph of a section through the spinal cord, showing

major landmarks in and surrounding the cord.

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 Six Major Regions of the Brain (8-7)

1. The cerebrum

2. The diencephalon

3. The midbrain

4. The pons

5. The medulla oblongata

6. The cerebellum

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 Major Structures of the Brain (8-7)

• The cerebrum
• Is divided into paired cerebral hemispheres

• Deep to the cerebrum is the diencephalon

• Which is divided into the thalamus, the hypothalamus,
and the epithalamus
• The brain stem
• Contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

• The cerebellum
• Is the most inferior/posterior part
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 Figure 8-16a The Brain.

Right cerebral hemisphere

Longitudinal fissure CEREBRUM
Left cerebral hemisphere
A P
N O
T S
E CEREBELLUM T
R E
I R
O I
R O
R
Cerebral veins and arteries
below arachnoid mater
Superior view

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-16b The Brain.

Central sulcus

Precentral gyrus Postcentral

gyrus
Parietal
Frontal lobe of left lobe
cerebral hemisphere

Lateral sulcus Occipital

lobe

Temporal lobe
CEREBELLUM
PONS
Lateral view MEDULLA OBLONGATA

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 Figure 8-16c The Brain.

Corpus Precentral Central Postcentral

callosum gyrus sulcus gyrus
Fornix
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Frontal lobe DIENCEPHALON
Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Parieto-occipital sulcus
Optic
chiasm
Mamillary body CEREBELLUM
Temporal lobe
MIDBRAIN
Brain stem PONS
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Sagittal section

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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc www.pinirest.com.
 The Ventricles of the Brain (8-7)

• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid and lined with

ependymal cells
• The two lateral ventricles within each cerebral
hemisphere drain through the:
• Interventricular foramen into the:

• Third ventricle in the diencephalon, which drains

through the cerebral aqueduct into the:
• Fourth ventricle, which drains into the central canal

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-17 The Ventricles of the Brain.

Ventricles of Cerebral hemispheres

Cerebral
the Brain
hemispheres
Lateral
ventricles
Interventricular
foramen
Third
ventricle
Cerebral
aqueduct
Fourth
Pons ventricle
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord Central canal Central canal Cerebellum
A lateral view of the ventricles An anterior view of the ventricles

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 Cerebrospinal Fluid (8-7)

• CSF
• Surrounds and bathes the exposed surfaces of the CNS

• Floats the brain

• Transports nutrients, chemicals, and wastes

• Is produced by the choroid plexus

• Continually secreted and replaced three times per day

• Circulation from the fourth ventricle into the

subarachnoid space into the dural sinuses

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 Figure 8-18a The Formation and Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid.
Arachnoid
Extension of choroid granulations
plexus into
lateral ventricle

Choroid plexus
of third ventricle
Cerebral
aqueduct Superior
Lateral aperture sagittal
sinus
Choroid plexus of
fourth ventricle
Median aperture
Arachnoid mater
Central canal
Subarachnoid space

Dura mater Spinal cord

A sagittal section of the CNS.

Cerebrospinal fluid, formed in
the choroid plexus, circulates
along the routes indicated by
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. the red arrows.
 Figure 8-18b The Formation and Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid.

Superior
sagittal sinus Cranium
Dura mater
(outer layer)

Arachnoid
granulation
Fluid
movement

Cerebral Dura mater

cortex (inner layer)
The relation- Subdural
ship of the space
arachnoid
Arachnoid
granulations mater
and dura
mater. Subarachnoid
Pia space
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
mater
 The Cerebrum (8-7)

• Contains an outer gray matter called the cerebral

cortex
• Deep gray matter in the cerebral nuclei and white matter of
myelinated axons beneath the cortex and around the nuclei

• The surface of the cerebrum

• Folds into gyri

• Separated by depressions called sulci or deeper grooves

called fissures

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 The Cerebral Hemispheres (8-7)

• Are separated by the longitudinal fissure

• The central sulcus

• Extends laterally from the longitudinal fissure

• The frontal lobe

• Is anterior to the central sulcus

• Is bordered inferiorly by the lateral sulcus

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 The Cerebral Hemispheres (8-7)

• The temporal lobe

• Inferior to the lateral sulcus

• Overlaps the insula

• The parietal lobe

• Extends between the central sulcus and the parieto-
occipital sulcus

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 The Cerebral Hemispheres (8-7)

• The occipital lobe

• Located most posteriorly

• The lobes are named for the cranial bone above it

• Each lobe has sensory regions and motor regions

• Each hemisphere sends and receives information

from the opposite side of the body

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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. www.pintirest.com
 Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex (8-7)

• Are divided by the central sulcus

• The precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe

• Contains the primary motor cortex

• The postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe

• Contains the primary sensory cortex

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 Motor and Sensory Areas of Cortex (8-7)

• The visual cortex is in the occipital lobe

• The gustatory, auditory, and olfactory cortexes

are in the temporal lobe

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 Association Areas (8-7)

• Interpret incoming information

• Coordinate a motor response, integrating the

sensory and motor cortexes
• The somatic sensory association area
• Helps to recognize touch

• The somatic motor association area

• Is responsible for coordinating movement

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-19 The Surface of the Cerebral Hemispheres.

Primary motor cortex

(precentral gyrus) Central sulcus Primary sensory cortex
(postcentral gyrus)
Somatic motor association
area (premotor cortex)
PARIETAL LOBE

Somatic sensory
association area
FRONTAL LOBE
Visual association
Prefrontal cortex area
OCCIPITAL LOBE
Gustatory cortex
Visual cortex
Insula
Lateral sulcus Auditory
association area
Auditory cortex
Olfactory cortex
TEMPORAL LOBE

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 Cortical Connections (8-7)

• Regions of the cortex are linked by the deeper

white matter
• The left and right hemispheres are linked across
the corpus callosum
• Other axons link the cortex with:
• The diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum, and spinal
cord

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 Higher-Order Centers (8-7)

• Integrative areas, usually only in the left

hemisphere
• The general interpretive area or Wernicke's area
• Integrates sensory information to form visual and auditory
memory

• The speech center or Broca's area

• Regulates breathing and vocalization, the motor skills
needed for speaking

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 The Prefrontal Cortex (8-7)

• In the frontal lobe

• Coordinates information from the entire cortex

• Skills such as:
• Predicting time lines

• Making judgments

• Feelings such as:

• Frustration, tension, and anxiety

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© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. https://cern-foundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Brain-Anatomy-
Function.jpg
 Hemispheric Lateralization (8-7)

• The concept that different brain functions can and

do occur on one side of the brain
• The left hemisphere tends to be involved in language
skills, analytical tasks, and logic
• The right hemisphere tends to be involved in analyzing
sensory input and relating it to the body, as well as
analyzing emotional content

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-20 Hemispheric Lateralization.

LEFT HAND RIGHT HAND

Prefrontal Prefrontal
cortex cortex

Speech center
Anterior commissure
C
O
R
P
Writing U
S Analysis by touch
C
A
Auditory cortex L Auditory cortex
(right ear) L (left ear)
O
S
U
General interpretive M Spatial visualization
center (language and and analysis
mathematical calculation)

Visual cortex Visual cortex

(right visual field) (left visual field)
LEFT RIGHT
HEMISPHERE HEMISPHERE
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Electroencephalogram (8-7)

• EEG

• A printed record of brain wave activity

• Can be interpreted to diagnose brain disorders

• More modern techniques

• Brain imaging, using the PET scan and MRIs, has
allowed extensive "mapping" of the brain's functional
areas

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-21 Brain Waves.

Patient being wired

for EEG monitoring

Alpha waves are

characteristic of
normal resting adults
Beta waves typically
accompany intense
concentration
Theta waves are
seen in children and
in frustrated adults
Delta waves occur
in deep sleep and in
certain pathological
conditions
0 Seconds 1 2 3 4

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Memory (8-7)

• Fact memory
• The recall of bits of information
• Skill memory
• Learned motor skill that can become incorporated into unconscious
memory
• Short-term memory
• Doesn't last long unless rehearsed
• Converting into long-term memory through memory consolidation
• Long-term memory
• Remains for long periods, sometimes an entire lifetime
• Amnesia
• Memory loss as a result of disease or trauma

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Limbic System (8-7)

• Includes the olfactory cortex, basal nuclei, gyri, and

tracts between the cerebrum and diencephalon
• A functional grouping, rather than an anatomical one

• Establishes the emotional states

• Links the conscious with the unconscious

• Aids in long-term memory with help of the

hippocampus

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 Figure 8-23 The Limbic System.

Cingulate gyrus
Corpus callosum
Thalamic nuclei Fornix

Hypothalamic
nuclei Mamillary body
Olfactory tract
Amygdaloid body
Hippocampus

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 The Diencephalon (8-7)

• Contains switching and relay centers

• Centers integrate conscious and unconscious sensory
information and motor commands
• Surround third ventricle
• Three components
1. Epithalamus

2. Thalamus

3. Hypothalamus

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%20OF%20THE%20WHITE%20AND%20GRAY%20MATTER.files/image028.jpg
 The Epithalamus (8-7)

• Lies superior to the third ventricle and forms the

roof of the diencephalon
• The anterior part contains choroid plexus

• The posterior part contains the pineal gland that

is endocrine and secretes melatonin

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 The Thalamus (8-7)

• The left and right thalamus are separated by the

third ventricle
• The final relay point for sensory information

• Only a small part of this input is sent on to the

primary sensory cortex

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Hypothalamus (8-7)

• Lies inferior to the third ventricle

• The subconscious control of skeletal muscle

contractions is associated with strong emotion
• Adjusts the pons and medulla functions

• Coordinates the nervous and endocrine systems

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 The Hypothalamus (8-7)

• Secretes hormones

• Produces sensations of thirst and hunger

• Coordinates voluntary and ANS function

• Regulates body temperature

• Coordinates daily cycles

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 The Midbrain (8-7)

• Contains various nuclei

• Two pairs involved in visual and auditory processing, the colliculi

• Contains motor nuclei for cranial nerves III and IV

• Cerebral peduncles contain descending fibers

• Reticular formation is a network of nuclei related to the

state of wakefulness
• The substantia nigra influence muscle tone

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 The Pons (8-7)

• Links the cerebellum with the midbrain,

diencephalon, cerebrum, and spinal cord
• Contains sensory and motor nuclei for cranial
nerves V, VI, VII, and VIII
• Other nuclei influence rate and depth of respiration

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 The Cerebellum (8-7)

• An automatic processing center

• Which adjusts postural muscles to maintain balance

• Programs and fine-tunes movements

• The cerebellar peduncles

• Are tracts that link the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and brain stem

• Ataxia
• Is disturbance of coordination

• Can be caused by damage to the cerebellum

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 The Medulla Oblongata (8-7)

• Connects the brain with the spinal cord

• Contains sensory and motor nuclei for cranial nerves VIII,

IX, X, XI, and XII
• Contains reflex centers
• Cardiovascular centers

• Adjust heart rate and arteriolar diameter

• Respiratory rhythmicity centers

• Regulate respiratory rate

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-24a The Diencephalon and Brain Stem.

Cerebral
peduncle
Diencephalon
Optic tract Thalamus Thalamic nuclei
Cranial
nerves Midbrain
N II Superior colliculus
N III Inferior colliculus
N IV
NV
N VI Pons Cerebellar peduncles
N VII
N VIII
N IX
NX Medulla
N XI oblongata
N XII
Spinal
nerve C1 Spinal
Spinal cord
nerve C2
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lateral view
 Figure 8-24b The Diencephalon and Brain Stem.

Choroid plexus
Thalamus
Third ventricle
Pineal gland
Corpora quadrigemina
Superior colliculi
N IV Inferior colliculi
Cerebral peduncle

Cerebellar peduncles
Choroid plexus in roof
of fourth ventricle

Dorsal roots
of spinal nerves
C1 and C2

Posterior view
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%20OF%20THE%20WHITE%20AND%20GRAY%20MATTER.files/image028.jpg
 Peripheral Nervous System (8-8)

• Links the CNS to the rest of the body through

peripheral nerves
• They include the cranial nerves and the spinal
nerves
• The cell bodies of sensory and motor neurons are
contained in the ganglia

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 The Cranial Nerves (8-8)

• 12 pairs, noted as Roman numerals I through XII

• Some are:
• Only motor pathways

• Only sensory pathways

• Mixed having both sensory and motor neurons

• Often remembered with a mnemonic

• "Oh, Once One Takes The Anatomy Final, Very Good
Vacations Are Heavenly"
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Cranial Nerves (8-8)

• The olfactory nerves (N I)

• Are connected to the cerebrum

• Carry information concerning the sense of smell

• The optic nerves (N II)

• Carry visual information from the eyes, through the
optic foramina of the orbits to the optic chiasm
• Continue as the optic tracts to the nuclei of the thalamus

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Cranial Nerves (8-8)

• The oculomotor nerves (N III)

• Motor only, arising in the midbrain

• Innervate four of six extrinsic eye muscles and the

intrinsic eye muscles that control the size of the pupil

• The trochlear nerves (N IV)

• Smallest, also arise in the midbrain

• Innervate the superior oblique extrinsic muscles of the

eyes

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Cranial Nerves (8-8)

• The trigeminal nerves (N V)

• Have nuclei in the pons, are the largest cranial nerves
• Have three branches
1. The ophthalmic
• From the orbit, sinuses, nasal cavity, skin of
forehead, nose, and eyes
2. The maxillary
• From the lower eyelid, upper lip, cheek, nose, upper
gums, and teeth
3. The mandibular
• From salivary glands and tongue
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Cranial Nerves (8-8)

• The abducens nerves (N VI)

• Innervate only the lateral rectus extrinsic eye muscle,
with the nucleus in the pons

• The facial nerves (N VII)

• Mixed, and emerge from the pons

• Sensory fibers monitor proprioception in the face

• Motor fibers provide facial expressions; control tear and

salivary glands

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Cranial Nerves (8-8)

• The vestibulocochlear nerves (N VIII)

• Respond to sensory receptors in the inner ear
• There are two components
1. The vestibular nerve
• Conveys information about balance and position

2. The cochlear nerve

• Responds to sound waves for the sense of hearing
• Their nuclei are in the pons and medulla oblongata

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Cranial Nerves (8-8)

• The glossopharyngeal nerves (N IX)

• Mixed nerves innervating the tongue and pharynx

• Their nuclei are in the medulla oblongata

• The sensory portion monitors taste on the posterior third

of the tongue and monitors BP and blood gases
• The motor portion controls pharyngeal muscles used in
swallowing, and fibers to salivary glands

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Cranial Nerves (8-8)

• The vagus nerves (N X)

• Have sensory input vital to autonomic control of the
viscera
• Motor control includes the soft palate, pharynx, and
esophagus
• Are a major pathway for ANS output to cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle, and digestive glands

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Cranial Nerves (8-8)

• The accessory nerves (N XI)

• Have fibers that originate in the medulla oblongata

• Also in the lateral gray horns of the first five cervical

segments of the spinal cord

• The hypoglossal nerves (N XII)

• Provide voluntary motor control over the tongue

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-25 The Cranial Nerves.

Olfactory bulb, termination

of olfactory nerve (I)
Olfactory tract
Mamillary Optic chiasm
body
Basilar Optic nerve (II)
artery Infundibulum
Oculomotor nerve
(III)
Trochlear nerve
(IV)
Trigeminal nerve
(V)
Abducens nerve
(VI)
Facial nerve (VII)
Vestibulocochlear
nerve (VIII)
Glossopharyngeal
Pons nerve (IX)
Vagus nerve (X)
Vertebral
artery Hypoglossal nerve
(XII)
Medulla Accessory nerve (XI)
Cerebellum oblongata Spinal cord
Diagrammatic view showing
Inferior view of the brain the attachment of the 12 pairs
of cranial nerves

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 Table 8-2 The Cranial Nerves

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Spinal Nerves (8-8)

• Found in 31 pairs grouped according to the region

of the vertebral column
• 8 pairs of cervical nerves, C1–C8

• 12 pairs of thoracic nerves, T1–T12

• 5 pairs of lumbar nerves, L1–L5

• 5 pairs of sacral nerves, S1–S5

• 1 pair of coccygeal nerves, Co1

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Nerve Plexuses (8-8)

• The origin of major nerve trunks of the PNS

• The cervical plexus
• Innervates the muscles of the head and neck and the
diaphragm

• The brachial plexus

• Innervates the shoulder girdle and upper limb

• The lumbar plexus and the sacral plexus

• Innervate the pelvic girdle and lower limb

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-26 Peripheral Nerves and Nerve Plexuses.

C1
Cervical C2
plexus
C3
C4
C5
C6
Brachial C7 Phrenic nerve (extends to the diaphragm)
C8
plexus T1
T2
T3
T4
Axillary nerve
T5
T6
T7 Musculocutaneous
T8
T9
nerve
T 10
T11
T12
L1 Radial nerve
Lumbar L2
Ulnar nerve
plexus L3
L4 Median nerve
L5
S1
Sacral S2
plexus S3
S4
S5
Co
1

Femoral nerve
Obturator nerve
Gluteal nerves

Saphenous nerve
Sciatic nerve
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Dermatome (8-8)

• A clinically important area monitored by a specific

spinal nerve

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-27 Dermatomes.
C2–C3
NV

C2–C3
C2
C3 C3
C4
T2 C4
C5
T3
T1
T2 T4
T5 C5
T3 T6
T4 T7
T5 T8
T6 T9 T2
T2 T7 T10
T8 T11
T9 T12 C6
L1
T10 L2
T11 L4 L3 T1
C6 C7
T12 L5
L1
SS
L2 S2 4 3
C8
C8
T1 L3 L1
C7 S5
S1 L 5
L4
L 2 S2

L5 L3

S1

L4

ANTERIOR POSTERIOR

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Table 8-3 Nerve Plexuses and Major Nerves

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Reflexes (8-9)

• Rapid, automatic, unlearned motor response to a stimulus

• Usually removes or opposes the original stimulus
• Monosynaptic reflexes
• For example, the stretch reflex
• Which responds to muscle spindles, is the simplest with only
one synapse
• The best known stretch reflex is probably the knee jerk reflex

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Simple Reflexes (8-9)

• Are wired in a reflex arc

• A stimulus activates a sensory receptor

• An action potential travels down an afferent neuron

• Information processing occurs with the interneuron

• An action potential travels down an efferent neuron

• The effector organ responds

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-28 The Components of a Reflex Arc.

Sensation
Dorsal relayed to the
Arrival of Activation of a root brain by axon
stimulus and sensory neuron collaterals
activation of
receptor
Information
REFLEX processing
ARC in the CNS
Receptor
Stimulus
Effector
Response by KEY
effector Ventral Sensory
root neuron
(stimulated)
Activation of a
motor neuron Excitatory
interneuron
Motor neuron
(stimulated)

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-29 A Stretch Reflex.

Stretching of muscle tendon

stimulates muscle spindles

Muscle spindle
(stretch receptor)
Stretch

Spinal
Cord
REFLEX
ARC

Contraction

Activation of motor
neuron produces reflex
muscle contraction

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Complex Reflexes (8-9)

• Polysynaptic reflexes
• With at least one interneuron
• Are slower than monosynaptic reflexes, but can activate
more than one effector
• Withdrawal reflexes
• Like the flexor reflex, move a body part away from the
stimulation
• Like touching a hot stove
• Reciprocal inhibition
• Blocks the flexor's antagonist
• To ensure that flexion is in no way interfered with
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Figure 8-30 The Flexor Reflex, a Type of Withdrawal Reflex.

Distribution within gray horns to other

segments of the spinal cord

Painful
Flexors
stimulus
stimulated

Extensors KEY
inhibited Sensory Motor
neuron neuron
(stimulated) (inhibited)
Excitatory Inhibitory
interneuron interneuron
Motor neuron
(stimulated)

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 Input to Modify Reflexes (8-9)

• Reflexes are automatic, but higher brain centers

can influence or modify them
• The Babinski sign
• Triggered by stroking an infant's sole, resulting in a
fanning of the toes
• As descending inhibitory synapses develop, an adult will
respond by curling the toes instead, called the plantar
reflex

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 Table 8-4 Sensory and Motor Pathways

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 The Autonomic Nervous System (8-11)

• Unconscious adjustment of homeostatically essential

visceral responses
• Sympathetic division

• Parasympathetic division

• The somatic NS and ANS are anatomically different

• SNS: one neuron to skeletal muscle

• ANS: two neurons to cardiac and smooth muscle, glands, and fat
cells

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Two Neuron Pathways of the ANS (8-11)

• Preganglionic neuron
• Has cell body in spinal cord, synapses at the ganglion with the
postganglionic neuron

• In sympathetic division
• Preganglionic fibers are short

• Postganglionic fibers are long

• In parasympathetic division
• Preganglionic fibers are long

• Postganglionic fibers are "short"

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-33 The Organization of the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems.

Upper motor Visceral motor nuclei in

neurons in hypothalamus
Primary
motor
cortex

BRAIN BRAIN
Somatic
motor nuclei
of brain stem Preganglionic neuron
Visceral
Effectors
Smooth
muscle
Autonomic
Glands Autonomic nuclei in
Skeletal Lower SPINAL ganglia brain stem
muscle motor CORD Cardiac Ganglionic SPINAL CORD
neurons muscle neurons

Somatic Autonomic
motor nuclei in
nuclei of spinal cord
spinal cord Preganglionic
Adipocytes neuron
Skeletal
muscle

Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system

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 The Sympathetic Division (8-11)

• Sympathetic chain
• Arises from spinal segments T1–L2

• The preganglionic fibers enter the sympathetic chain

ganglia just outside the spinal column
• Collateral ganglia are unpaired ganglia that receive
splanchnic nerves from the lower thoracic and upper
lumbar segments
• Postganglionic neurons innervate abdominopelvic cavity

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 The Sympathetic Division (8-11)

• The adrenal medullae

• Are innervated by preganglionic fibers

• Are modified neural tissue that secrete E and NE into

capillaries, functioning like an endocrine gland
• The effect is nearly identical to that of the sympathetic
postganglionic stimulation of adrenergic synapses

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-34 The Sympathetic Division.

Eye
PONS
Salivary
glands

Sympathetic nerves
Cervical Heart
sympathetic
ganglia
T1 T1 Cardiac and
Spinal nerves Splanchnic pulmonary
nerve plexuses Lung
Collateral
Coll- ganglion
ateral Liver and
ganglion gallbladder
Stomach
Splan-
chnic Spleen
nerves Pancreas
Large
Postganglionic intestine
fibers to spinal
nerves Collateral Small
(innervating skin, L2 L2 ganglion intestine
blood vessels,
sweat glands, Adrenal
arrector pili medulla
muscles,
adipose tissue) Kidney
Sympathetic
chain ganglia
KEY Spinal cord
Preganglionic neurons
Ganglionic neurons Ovary Penis Scrotum Urinary bladder
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Uterus
 The Sympathetic Division (8-11)

• Also called the "fight-or-flight" division

• Effects
• Increase in alertness, metabolic rate, sweating, heart
rate, blood flow to skeletal muscle
• Dilates the respiratory bronchioles and the pupils

• Blood flow to the digestive organs is decreased

• E and NE from the adrenal medullae support and

prolong the effect

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Parasympathetic Division (8-11)

• Preganglionic neurons arise from the brain stem

and sacral spinal cord
• Include cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X, the vagus,
a major parasympathetic nerve
• Ganglia very close to or within the target organ

• Preganglionic fibers of the sacral areas form the

pelvic nerves

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 The Parasympathetic Division (8-11)

• Less divergence than in the sympathetic division,

so effects are more localized
• Also called "rest-and digest" division

• Effects
• Constriction of the pupils, increase in digestive secretions,
increase in digestive tract smooth muscle activity
• Stimulates urination and defecation

• Constricts bronchioles, decreases heart rate

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 8-35 The Parasympathetic Division.
Terminal ganglion
N III Lacrimal gland
Eye
PONS Terminal ganglion
N VII
Terminal ganglion Salivary glands
N IX
Terminal
ganglion
N X (Vagus) Heart

Cardiac and
pulmonary
plexuses Lungs

Liver and gallbladder

Stomach
Spleen
Pancreas
Large intestine
Pelvic
nerves Small intestine
Rectum

Spinal S2 Kidney
cord S3
S4

KEY Urinary
Preganglionic neurons bladder
Ganglionic neurons Uterus Ovary Penis Scrotum
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 Dual Innervation (8-11)

• Refers to both divisions affecting the same organs

• Mostly have antagonistic effects

• Some organs are innervated by only one division

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 Table 8-5 The Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the ANS on Various Body Structures
(1 of 2)

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 Table 8-5 The Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the ANS on Various Body Structures
(2 of 2)

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 Aging and the Nervous System (8-12)

• Common changes
• Reduction in brain size and weight and reduction in
number of neurons
• Reduction in blood flow to the brain

• Change in synaptic organization of the brain

• Increase in intracellular deposits and extracellular

plaques
• Senility can be a result of all these changes

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 Figure 8-36

Body System Nervous System

SYSTEM INTEGRATOR Nervous System Body System

Integumentary

Integumentary
Provides sensations of touch, pressure, Controls contraction of arrector pili

(Page 138)
pain, vibration, and temperature; hair muscles and secretion of sweat glands
provides some protection and insulation
for skull and brain; protects peripheral
nerves

Provides calcium for neural function; Controls skeletal muscle

protects brain and spinal cord

(Page 188)
Skeletal
Skeletal
contractions that results in bone
thickening and maintenance and
determine bone position

Facial muscles express emotional Controls skeletal muscle contractions;

Muscular
state; intrinsic laryngeal muscles coordinates respiratory and

Muscular
(Page 241)
permit communication; muscle cardiovascular activities
spindles provide proprioceptive
sensations

The NERVOUS System

The nervous system is closely

Endocrine
(Page 376)
integrated with other body systems.
Every moment of your life, billions
of neurons in your nervous system
are exchanging information
across trillions of synapses

Cardiovascular
and performing the most

(Page 467)
complex integrative
functions in the body. As
part of this process, the
nervous system monitors all

Lymphatic
other systems and issues

(Page 500)
commands that adjust their
activities. However, the
impact of these commands
varies greatly from one

Respiratory
system to another. The normal

(Page 532)
functions of the muscular system,
for example, simply cannot be
performed without instructions from the
nervous system. By contrast, the
cardiovascular system is relatively

Digestive
(Page 572)
independent—the nervous system
merely coordinates and adjusts
cardiovascular activities to meet the
circulatory demands of other systems. In
the final analysis, the nervous system is

(Page 637)
Urinary
like the conductor of an orchestra,
directing the rhythm and balancing the
performances of each section to
produce a symphony, instead of simply

Reproductive
a very loud noise.

(Page 671)
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