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Chapter 3 - Lecture Note 1 Sets

The document discusses sets, set operations, and set identities. It defines sets, describes ways to represent sets, and introduces important sets used in mathematics. It also covers set operations like union, intersection, difference and complement and identities related to these operations.

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Rusith Dilshan
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66 views

Chapter 3 - Lecture Note 1 Sets

The document discusses sets, set operations, and set identities. It defines sets, describes ways to represent sets, and introduces important sets used in mathematics. It also covers set operations like union, intersection, difference and complement and identities related to these operations.

Uploaded by

Rusith Dilshan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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SMA 2203

Discrete Mathematics

Chapter 3
Sets, Functions and Relations
Sets
Chapter Summary

Sets

◦Introduction to Sets
◦Set Operations
◦Set Identities
Functions

Relations
Sets
A set is an unordered collection of objects.
◦the students in this class
◦the chairs in this room

The objects in a set are called the elements, or members of


the set. A set is said to contain its elements.

The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is an element of the set


A.

If a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A


Describing a Set
(listing the members)
 S = {a,b,c,d}
 Order not important
◦ S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
 Each distinct object is either a member or not; listing more
than once does not change the set.
◦ S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
 Elipses (…) may be used to describe a set without listing all
of the members when the pattern is clear.
◦ S = {a,b,c,d, ……,z }
Some Important Sets

 = natural numbers = {0,1,2,3….}


 = integers = {…,‐3,‐2,‐1,0,1,2,3,…}

 ⁺ = positive integers = {1,2,3,…..}

 = set of real numbers

 + = set of positive real numbers

 = set of complex numbers.

 = set of rational numbers


Set‐Builder Notation
 Specify the property or properties that all members must
satisfy:
◦ S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
◦ O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
◦ O = {x ∈ Z⁺ | x is odd and x < 10}

 A predicate may be used : S = {x | P(x)}


◦ Example: S = {x | Prime(x)}

 Positive rational numbers:


◦ + = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p,q}
Interval Notation
[a , b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}

[a , b) = {x | a ≤ x < b}

(a , b] = {x | a < x ≤ b}

(a , b) = {x | a < x < b}

closed interval [a,b]


open interval (a,b)
Universal Set and Empty Set

 universal set U is the set containing everything currently under


consideration.
◦ Sometimes implicit.
◦ Sometimes explicitly stated.
◦ Contents depend on the context.

 The empty set is the set with no elements.


◦ Symbolized ∅, but {} also used.
Remember
 Sets can be elements of sets.
◦{{1,2,3},a, {b,c}}
◦{}
 The empty set is different from a set containing the empty set.
◦∅ ≠{∅}
Subsets
Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and only if every
element of A is also an element of B.

The notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a subset of the set


B.
◦A ⊆ B holds if and only if is true.
Set Equality
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same
elements.

Therefore if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if and


only if

We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.


◦{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}
◦{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}
Another look at Equality of Sets using
Subsets
 .
Set Cardinality
 Definition: If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a
nonnegative integer, we say that S is finite. Otherwise it is infinite.

 Definition: The cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by |A|, is the


number of (distinct) elements of A.

 Examples:

1. |ø| = 0
2. Let S be the letters of the English alphabet. Then |S| =
26
3. |{1,2,3}| = 3
4. |{ø}| = 1
5. The set of integers is infinite.
Power Sets
Definition: The set of all subsets of a set A, denoted P(A), is called
the power set of A.

◦Example: If A = {a,b} then


P(A) = {ø, {a},{b},{a,b}}

Note: If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of the power set
is 2ⁿ.
Tuples
 The ordered n‐tuple (a1,a2,…..,an) is the ordered collection that has a1 as
its first element and a2 as its second element and so on until an as its last
element.

 Two n‐tuples are equal if and only if their corresponding


elements are equal.

 2‐tuples are called ordered pairs.

 The ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if and only if
a = c and b = d.
Cartesian Product
Definition: The Cartesian Product of two sets A and B, denoted
by A × B is the set of ordered pairs (a,b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B
.

Example:
A = {a,b} B = {1,2,3}
A × B = {(a,1),(a,2),(a,3), (b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}
Truth Sets of Quantifiers
Given a predicate P and a domain D, we define the truth set of
P to be the set of elements in D for which P(x) is true. The truth
set of P(x) is denoted by

Example: The truth set of P(x) where the domain is the


integers and P(x) is “|x| = 1” is the set {‐1,1}
Set operations
 Union
 .
Set operations
 Intersection
 .
Set operations
 Complement
 .
Set operations
 Difference
 .
The Cardinality of the Union of Two
Sets
 .
Set Identities
 .
Set Identities
 .
Set Identities
 .
Proving Set Identities
How can we prove A(BC) = (AB)(AC)?
Example: Proof of Distributive second law

Method I: logical equivalent


xA(BC)
Û xA  x(BC)
Û xA  (xB  xC)
Û (xA  xB)  (xA  xC) (distributive law)
Û x(AB)  x(AC)
Û x(AB)(AC)
Every logical expression can be transformed into an equivalent expression in set
theory and vice versa.
Proving Set Identities
Method II: Membership table
1 means “x is an element of this set”
0 means “x is not an element of this set”
A B C BC A(BC) AB AC (AB) (AC)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Proving Set Identities
 The most common way to prove set identities:
Prove that each set (side of the identity) is a subset of the other.
Example: Proof of Second De Morgan Law
Proof of Second De Morgan Law (Cont..)
 .
Proof of Second De Morgan Law (Cont..)
 .
Summary of set Identities
–Identity laws, A = A, AU = A
–Domination laws, AU = U, A = 
–Idempotent laws, AA = A, AA = A
–Complementation law, (Ac)c = A
–Commutative laws, AB = BA, AB = BA
–Associative laws, A(B  C) = (AB)C, …
–Distributive laws, A(BC) = (AB)(AC), …
–De Morgan’s laws, (AB)c = AcBc, (AB)c = AcBc
–Absorption laws, A(AB) = A, A(AB) = A
–Complement laws, AAc = U, AAc = 

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