Electrical & Chemical

Signaling
Part 2
 Lecture Outline
• Graded Potentials
• Other electrical signaling
– Gap junctions
• The Process of Synaptic Transmission
– Events releasing Neurotransmitters
– Neurotransmitters
• Modulation & Stopping Transmission
 Graded Potentials
• Characteristics
– NOT all-or-none
– Graded
• May increase or decrease in size
– Decremental
– Summable / cancelable
– Local
– May be excitatory or inhibitory
 Graded Potentials
• Function
– Integration
• Decision making a the cellular level (neurons)
• Called post-synaptic potentials
– Transduction
• Conversion of stimulus into action potential
• Called receptor potentials
– Stimulus modality may be: – Receptors may be:
 Chemical Chemoreceptors
 Mechanical Mechanoreceptors
 Light (photons) photoreceptors\
 Heat/cold Thermoreceptors
 Pain Nociceptors
Graded Potentials & Integration
• Location
– Neuronal cell bodies &
dendrites
• Creation of post-synaptic
potentials
– Binding of neurotransmitter
to neurotransmitter
receptor (chemically gated
channel)
– Chemically gated channel
opens allowing
• Na+ or Ca2+ influx creates
excitatory post-synaptic
potentials (EPSPs)
OR
• K+ efflux or Cl- influx
creates inhibitory post-
synaptic potentials
(IPSPs)
Graded Potentials & Integration
• EPSPs
– Cause localized
depolarization
events
• Due to influx of Na+
or Ca2+ ions
– individually, unless
they occur very
close to the axon
hillock, nothing will
happen
– May be summed
Graded Potentials & Integration
• IPSPs
– Cause localized
hyperpolarization
events
• Due to influx of Cl-
or efflux of K+ ions
– May be summed
to create greater
hyperpolarization
Graded Potentials & Integration
• Summation may be
– Temporal
– Spatial
 Post Synaptic Potentials
• May be EPSPs or IPSPs
• The sum of all post-snaptic events is called the Grand Post Synaptic
Potential (GPSP)
– If GPSP allows axon hillock to reach threshold an action potential
occurs
– If GPSP is not great enough to reach threshold, or moves axon hillock
membrane potential away from threshold – no action potential
 Gap Junction (Electrical Synapse)
• Direct flow between cells
– Ions
– cAMP
• Found to some extent in most
cells of body
– Exceptions: freely mobile
cells (RBC’s, sperm…)
• Connexons (formed by connexins) create a connection
between cell membranes of adjacent cells
– Rate of flow depends on density of gap junctions
• Useful
– For creating a unified response in
• Cardiac tissue
• Smooth muscle
– For modulating neuron activity in retina
– Communication between glial cells (in CNS)
 Chemical Synapses
• Transfers the action potential to the target
cell/membrane via neurocrines or
neurotransmitters
• Neuron secreting the chemical signals are the
presynaptic neurons
• Cells receiving (with the receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane) the chemicals are the
postsynaptic cell
• The small space that the neurotransmitters
diffuse is the synaptic cleft

http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/synaptic.swf
 Chemical Synapses
• Physiologically, it is
– The process of converting the action potential
(electrical) at the synaptic bulb to a
mechanical event that causes the release of
neurotransmitter (chemical) that then creates
a membrane potential (electrical) event on the
post synaptic membrane
• Things to consider
– Process
– Influences on the process
 The Process of Synaptic
Transmission
1. action potential depolarizes the
axon terminal
2. Voltage gated Ca2+ channels
are activated by the
depolarization, allowing a Ca2+
influx into the synaptic bulb
3. Ca2+ triggers secondary
messenger system that causes
a. Motor proteins to attach to
vesicles and move along
cytoskeletal “tracks” to the
docking proteins in the
presynaptic membrane
b. Vesicle binds and releases
neurotransmitters into synaptic
cleft
4. Neurotransmitter binds to
receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane
a. Initiating a response (EPSP or
IPSP)
 The Process of Synaptic
Transmission
• The neurocrines (neurotransmitters and
neuromodulators)
• Classes:
– Acetylcholine
– Amines
– Amino acids
– Peptides
– Purines
– Gases
– Lipids
 The Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine
– Derived from choline & acetyl CoA
– binds to cholinergic class of receptor which may be
• Nicotinic
– Ion channel receptor (Na+/K+)
– Skeletal muscle, CNS and ANS
– Agonist = nicotine
– Antagonist = curare & -bungarotoxin
• Muscarinic
– GPCR Bungarus multicinctus
– Mainly in smooth muscle and cardiac muscle
– Receptors also in CNS and glands (both exo & endocrine)
– Agonist = muscarine, Antagonist = atropine
– Used widely
• By all preganglionic neurons in autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• By all postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic system of
the ANS
 The Neurotransmitters
• Amines
– Derived from single amino acid tyrosine
– Function as neurohormones:
1. Dopamine produced in the brain (substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area
[VTA] & hypothalamus (where it inhibits release of prolactin)
– Binds to dopamine receptors (at least 5)
– GPCR
– Targets the CNS
» In the substania nigra it is involved in reward, cognition as well as a major
player in muscle control (death of dopamine producing neurons in the
substantia nigra is responsible for Parkinson’s Disease)
» In the VTA it is implcated in reward, cognition, motivation & addiction

however given orally,

dopamine will act as a
sympathomimetic,
increasing heart rate
and blood pressure, but
will not affect CNS as it
does not cross the BBB
 The Neurotransmitters
Amines, cont…
2. Norepinephrine
3. Epinephrine
Produced in the adrenal medulla
• Bind to adrenergic receptors (,β)
• GPCR
• Affects smooth & cardiac muscle tissue as well as exo and endocrine glands
4. Seratonin – from tryptophan (aa)
• Binds to serotonergic recetors (at least 20 different ones so far)
• Activates ICR that regulate Na+/K+
– LSD is an antagonist
• In CNS Functions in various functions, including the regulation of mood,
appetite, sleep, muscle contraction, and some cognitive functions including
memory and learning
• Most of serotonin is produced by the enteroendocrine system (gut) in
regulation of digestive function
5. Histamine – from histidine (aa)
• Binds to histamine receptors (GPCRs) in the CNS, PNS and system wide
– In CNS modulate sleep
• 4 receptors to date (H1-H4)
• Antagonists in CNS will induce sleepiness (antihistamines)
 The Neurotransmitters
• Amino Acids
Four major amino acids functioning as NT’s in
the CNS
1. Glutamate
• Most abundant excitatory NT in the CNS
• Involved in long term potentiation or synaptic plasticity
• Binds to Glutaminergic ionotropic (iGluR) class of receptors
– AMPA (-amino-3-hydroxy-5methyl-4-isoxazole proprionic acid)
which is a ICR that controls Na+ and K+
– NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) which is an ICR that controls
Na+, K+, Ca2+ movement)
• Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
– Binding to NMDA receptors causes the cell to increase the
density of AMPA receptors
2. Aspartate binds to NMDA receptors, but can also be
an excitotoxin!
 The Neurotransmitters
• Amino Acids
3. GABA
• Main inhibitory NT of the brain
• Binds to GABA receptors which are ICRs,
that control Cl-
– antagonist = picrotoxin (Indian Berry)
» It is non-competitive
» Strong convulsive effects
– Potentiators = alcohol, benzodiazapene &
and barbituates (also block the AMPA
receptors for glutamate!)
4. Glycine
• Main inhibitory NT of the spinal cord, brain
stem and retina
• A co-agonist with glutamate on NMDA
receptors (in an excitatory role)
• An antagonist is strychnine – causing
convulsions, and possibly death due to
asphyxiation
 Benzodiazapenes -
Cause we all need to relax a little more!
• Over 80 different drugs that utilize it with most being
antianxiety, anticonvulsive, hypnotic in effect!

Bromazepam • Camazepam • Chlordiazepoxide • Cinolazepam • Clonazepam • Clorazepate • Cyprazepam • Delorazepam • Diazepam • Doxefazepam • Elfazepam
• Ethyl carfluzepate • Ethyl dirazepate • Ethyl loflazepate •Fletazepam • Fludiazepam • Flunitrazepam • Flurazepam • Flutemazepam • Flutoprazepam •
1,4-Benzodiazepines Fosazepam • Gidazepam • Halazepam • Iclazepam • Lopirazepam • Lorazepam • Lormetazepam • Meclonazepam • Medazepam •Menitrazepam • Metaclazepam
• Nimetazepam • Nitrazepam • Nitrazepate • Nordazepam • Oxazepam • Phenazepam • Pinazepam • Pivoxazepam • Prazepam • Proflazepam • Quazepam •
QH-II-66 • Reclazepam •Sulazepam • Temazepam • Tetrazepam • Uldazepam

1,5-Benzodiazepines Arfendazam • Clobazam • Lofendazam • Triflubazam

2,3-Benzodiazepines Girisopam • GYKI-52466 • GYKI-52895 • Nerisopam • Tofisopam

Triazolobenzodiazepines Adinazolam • Alprazolam • Estazolam • Triazolam

Imidazobenzodiazepines Bretazenil • Climazolam • Flumazenil • Imidazenil • L-655,708 • Loprazolam • Midazolam • PWZ-029 • Ro15-4513 • Ro48-6791 • Sarmazenil • SH-053-R-CH3-2′F

Oxazolobenzodiazepines Cloxazolam • Flutazolam • Haloxazolam • Mexazolam • Oxazolam

Thienodiazepines Brotizolam • Ciclotizolam • Clotiazepam • Etizolam

Pyridodiazepines Zapizolam • Lopirazepam

Pyrazolodiazepines Ripazepam • Zolazepam • Zomebazam

Pyrrolodiazepines Premazepam

Benzodiazepine Prodrugs Avizafone • Rilmazafone

Others Bentazepam • Devazepide • Ketazolam • Razobazam • Tifluadom

 The Neurotransmitters
• Peptides
– Usually two amino acids such as
– May function as NT’s as well as neurohormones
• CCK (cholecystokinin)
• Vasopressin
• Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
– May also be involved with neuromodulation in
pain/analgesic pathways
• Substance P - pain
• Enkephalins
Pain remediation – runner’s high
• Endorphins
 The Neurotransmitters
• Purines (adenosine, AMP, ATP)
– All bind to purinergic receptors
– Adenosine
• Involved in sleep
– Levels of adenosine rise continuously after awaking, eventually
shutting you down
• Bind to adenosine receptors which are GPCRs and modulate
the activity of adenylyl cyclase
– 2 adenosine receptors inhibit adenylyl cyclase activity
– 2 adenosine receptors increase adenylyl cyclase activity
– AMP & ATP
• Bind to receptor (GPCRs) and modulate intracellular levels of
Ca2+ and cAMP
• As adenosine depending on receptor, may have + or - effect
 The Neurotransmitters
• Gases
– NO, CO and H2S
– There is relatively little known about these as
neurotransmitters
– NO was named “molecule of the year” in 1992 as
realization regarding it’s very widespread effects in
immunology, physiology, & neuroscience
– What is known about NO is
• It was found that NO acts through the stimulation of
guanylate cyclase with subsequent formation of cyclic GMP.
• Cyclic GMP activates protein kinase G
• which caused phosphorylation of myosin light chain
phosphatase which then inactivates myosin light-chain
kinase
• causing smooth muscle relaxation
 The Neurotransmitters
• Lipids
– Eiconsoid neurocrines that bind to
cannabinoid receptors (so called because….)
• There are two receptors
– CB1 which are in the brain & are linked to the
psychoactive nature of marijuana
– CB2 which are mostly peripheral and associated with the
immune system
» These may mediate inflammation and pain
» CB2 Don’t cause any psychoactive issues
 The Process of Synaptic
Transmission
• Receptor types
– Determine effect on postsynaptic membrane
– There are multiple subtypes (isoforms) of receptors
for each neurotransmitter (except gases)
– Two basic types of receptors
• Ionotropic (ion channel-receptors)
• Metabotropic (G-protein coupled receptors)
– Why?
• Allows for one NT to have
multiple effects
– Handy when you have only one
autonomic nervous system!
– Serotonin has over 20 different
receptor types identified!
 The Process of Synaptic
Transmission
• Physiology of the Cholinergic & Adrenergic
receptors
– Cholinergic may be nicotinic or muscarinic
• Both bind acetylcholine
• Binding events differ vastly!
– Nicotinic receptors are ICR (Na+ / K+) and are found
mainly in skeletal muscle, Autonomic Division (aka ANS)
of the PNS and in the CNS
» Excitatory as depolarization occurs upon binding
– Cholinergic receptors are GPCR and are found in the
CNS and ANS
» Reaction varies with receptor subtype and effect
secondary messenger pathways
 The Process of Synaptic
Transmission
• The glutaminergic receptors
– AMPA
• ICR that cause depolarization (Na+ influx =excitatory) upon
binding of glutamate
– NMDA
• ICR channels that are trivalent cation channels
– Na+, K+ and Ca2+ can pass through BUT
» Co activation by glutamate and a depolarizing event are
required
» Glutamate partially opens channel
» Depolarization causes Mg2+ to be removed, opening the
channel completely
» Aspartate can also bind to the NMDA receptors
 The Process of Synaptic
Transmission
• Rate of Responses
– With ICRs, Ion flow is typically fast
• Ligand binds, channel opens
• Typical EPSPs and IPSPs
– With GPCRs
• The intracellular change is slower
– If the change is an electrical change, it is a slow synaptic
potential
– can be used for long term changes in potentiation
Long Term Potentiation
 Stopping the Process of Synaptic
Transmission
• Forever is bad when it comes to NT binding!
– Thankfully, binding follows rules
• Reversible
• Equilibrium
– Meaning if the presynaptic neuron “re-uptakes” it’s NT, the NT
bound to the receptor has to leave to maintain equilibrium
– Removal can be
• Diffusion
• Enzymatic activity in synaptic cleft
– Removal of receptors will limit the effect as well
 Presynaptic vs Postsynaptic
Modulation of Activity
• Presynaptic modulation take place at the axon
terminal near the synaptic bulb
– Allows for local or specific control of that synaptic bulb
and associated post-synaptic receptors
• May be inhibitory or excitatory
 Presynaptic vs Postsynaptic
Modulation of Activity
• Post-synaptic modulation takes place at the cell
and controls the axon hillock and is therefore
– Less specific
• If excitatory all synapses are effected
• If inhibitory all synapses are effected
 Next Time
• Nervous System