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Mass-Storage Systems

The document discusses various topics related to mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, disk management, swap space management, RAID structure, disk attachment methods, stable storage implementation, tertiary storage devices, operating system issues, and performance issues.

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44 views31 pages

Mass-Storage Systems

The document discusses various topics related to mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, disk management, swap space management, RAID structure, disk attachment methods, stable storage implementation, tertiary storage devices, operating system issues, and performance issues.

Uploaded by

smoldoggoenthusiast
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MASS-STORAGE SYSTEMS

 Disk Structure
 Disk Scheduling
 Disk Management
 Swap-Space Management
 RAID Structure
 Disk Attachment
 Stable-Storage Implementation
 Tertiary Storage Devices
 Operating System Issues
 Performance Issues
DISK STRUCTURE
Disk drives are addressed as large 1-dimensional arrays
of logical blocks, where the logical block is the smallest
unit of transfer.

The 1-dimensional array of logical blocks is mapped into


the sectors of the disk sequentially.
 Sector 0 is the first sector of the first track on the
outermost cylinder.
 Mapping proceeds in order through that track, then the
rest of the tracks in that cylinder, and then through the
rest of the cylinders from outermost to innermost.
DISK SCHEDULING
The operating system is responsible for using hardware
efficiently — for the disk drives, this means having a fast access
time and disk bandwidth.
Access time has two major components
 Seek time is the time for the disk are to move the heads to
the cylinder containing the desired sector.
 Rotational latency is the additional time waiting for the disk
to rotate the desired sector to the disk head.
Minimize seek time
Seek time seek distance
Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred,
divided by the total time between the first request for service
and the completion of the last transfer.
DISK SCHEDULING (CONT.)
Several algorithms exist to schedule the servicing of disk
I/O requests.
We illustrate them with a request queue (0-199).

98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

Head pointer 53
FCFS
Illustration shows total head movement of 640 cylinders.
SSTF
 Selects the request with the minimum seek time from
the current head position.

 SSTF scheduling is a form of SJF scheduling; may


cause starvation of some requests.

 Illustration shows total head movement of 236


cylinders.
SSTF (Cont.)
SCAN
The disk arm starts at one end of the disk, and
moves toward the other end, servicing requests until
it gets to the other end of the disk, where the head
movement is reversed and servicing continues.

Sometimes called the elevator algorithm.

Illustration shows total head movement of 208


cylinders.
SCAN (Cont.)
C-SCAN
Provides a more uniform wait time than SCAN.

The head moves from one end of the disk to the other.
servicing requests as it goes. When it reaches the other end,
however, it immediately returns to the beginning of the
disk, without servicing any requests on the return trip.

Treats the cylinders as a circular list that wraps around


from the last cylinder to the first one.
C-SCAN (Cont.)
C-LOOK
Version of C-SCAN

Arm only goes as far as the last request in each


direction, then reverses direction immediately,
without first going all the way to the end of the
disk.
C-LOOK (Cont.)
Selecting a Disk-Scheduling Algorithm
SSTF is common and has a natural appeal

SCAN and C-SCAN perform better for systems that place a heavy load on the disk.

Performance depends on the number and types of requests.

Requests for disk service can be influenced by the file- allocation method.

The disk-scheduling algorithm should be written as a separate module of the


operating system, allowing it to be replaced with a different algorithm if necessary.

Either SSTF or LOOK is a reasonable choice for the default algorithm.


Disk Management
Low-level formatting, or physical formatting — Dividing a disk
into sectors that the disk controller can read and write.
To use a disk to hold files, the operating system still
needs to record its own data structures on the disk.
 Partition the disk into one or more groups of cylinders.
 Logical formatting or “making a file system”.

Boot block initializes system.


 Thebootstrap is stored in ROM.
 Bootstrap loader program.

Methods such as sector sparing used to handle bad blocks.


MS-DOS Disk Layout
Swap-Space Management
Swap-space — Virtual memory uses disk space as an
extension of main memory.

 Swap-space can be carved out of the normal file


system,or, more commonly, it can be in a separate disk
partition.

 Swap-space management
4.3BSD allocates swap space when process starts; holds text
segment (the program) and data segment.
Kernel uses swap maps to track swap-space use.
Solaris 2 allocates swap space only when a page is forced out of
physical memory, not when the virtual memory page is first created.
4.3 BSD Text-Segment Swap Map
4.3 BSD Data-Segment Swap Map
RAID Structure

RAID – multiple disk drives provides reliability via


redundancy.

RAID is arranged into six different levels.


RAID (cont)
Several improvements in disk-use techniques involve the
use of multiple disks working cooperatively.

Disk striping uses a group of disks as one storage unit.

RAID schemes improve performance and improve the


reliability of the storage system by storing redundant data.
F Mirroring or shadowing keeps duplicate of each disk. F
Block interleaved parity uses much less redundancy.
RAID Levels
RAID (0 + 1) and (1 + 0)
Disk Attachment
 Disks may be attached one of two ways:

1. Host attached via an I/O port

2. Network attached via a network connection


Network-Attached Storage
Storage-Area Network
Reliability
A fixed disk drive is likely to be more reliable than
a removable disk or tape drive.

 An optical cartridge is likely to be more reliable


than a magnetic disk or tape.

 A head crash in a fixed hard disk generally


destroys the data, whereas the failure of a tape
drive or optical disk
Cost
Main memory is much more expensive than disk storage

 The cost per megabyte of hard disk storage is competitive


with magnetic tape if only one tape is used per drive.

The cheapest tape drives and the cheapest disk drives have
had about the same storage capacity over the years.

 Tertiary storage gives a cost savings only when the number


of cartridges is considerably larger than the number of drives
Price per Megabyte of DRAM, From 1981 to
2000
Price per Megabyte of Magnetic Hard Disk,
From 1981 to 2000
Price per Megabyte of a Tape Drive, From 1984-
2000

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