Inquiries,

Investigation, and
Immersion
Quarter 2 Module 1- Lesson 2
Finding the Answers to the
Research Questions
Vocabulary List
The following terms will be encountered in the lesson:

Data Interpretation- is the process of making sense of numerical

data that has been collected, analyzed, and presented.

Data presentation- Data interpretation methods are how analysts

help people make sense of numerical data that has been collected,
analyzed and presented.

Conceptual framework is an analytical tool that is used to get a

comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon. It can be used in
different fields of work and is most commonly used to visually
explain the key concepts or variables and the relationships
between them that need to be studied.
 Interpreting the Data

Interpretation is the process of attaching meaning to the data.

After identifying and analyzing, coding and organizing a
presentation, and identifying the themes and patterns, the next
step is to interpret the results. In this process, the results are
synthesized into a coherent whole. Meaning and significance are
attached to the analysis of data. The themes and patterns serve to
explain the findings. The implications of the study are highlighted
in this section as a preface for the final parts of the research paper
which are the summary of the findings, conclusion, and
recommendations.

The following are the steps in interpreting research findings:

 Interpreting the Data

Interpretation is the process of attaching meaning to the data.

After identifying and analyzing, coding and organizing a
presentation, and identifying the themes and patterns, the next
step is to interpret the results. In this process, the results are
synthesized into a coherent whole. Meaning and significance are
attached to the analysis of data. The themes and patterns serve to
explain the findings. The implications of the study are highlighted
in this section as a preface for the final parts of the research paper
which are the summary of the findings, conclusion, and
recommendations.
The following are the steps in interpreting research findings:
a.Points or important findings should be listed.
b.The lessons learned and new things should be noted.
c.Quotes or descriptive examples given by the participants should
be included.
d.The new found knowledge from other settings, programs, or
reviewed literatures should be applied.

The following are the levels of interpretation as considered in

organizing the discussion of the results (Ducut & Pangilinan,
2006):

e.Level 1. Data collected are compared and contrasted and any

unexpected results may be included. Comments on certain
shortcomings of the study may be made but they should not
overly emphasize the flaws.
a.Level 2. The internal validity of the results, as well as their
consistency or reliability, is explained. The causes or factors that
may have influenced the results are described.
b.Level 3. The external validity of the results, that is, their
generally or applicability of the external condition is explained.

d.Level 4. The data are related to theoretical research or with

reviewed literature.

The importance of data interpretation is evident and this is why it

needs to be done properly. Data is very likely to arrive from
multiple sources and has a tendency to enter the analysis
process with haphazard ordering. Data analysis tends to be
extremely subjective. That is to say, the nature and goal of
interpretation will vary from business to business, likely
correlating to the type of data being analyzed. While there are
several different types of processes that are implemented based
on individual data nature, the two broadest and most common
categories are “quantitative analysis” and “qualitative analysis”.

Yet, before any serious data interpretation inquiry can begin, it

should be understood that visual presentations of data findings are
irrelevant unless a sound decision is made regarding scales of
measurement. Before any serious data analysis can begin, the
scale of measurement must be decided for the data as this will
have a long-term impact on data interpretation ROI. The varying
scales include:

 Nominal Scale: non-numeric categories that cannot be ranked

or compared quantitatively. Variables are exclusive and
exhaustive.
 Ordinal Scale: exclusive categories that are exclusive and
exhaustive but with a logical order. Quality ratings and
agreement ratings are examples of ordinal scales (i.e., good,
very good, fair, etc., OR agree, strongly agree, disagree, etc.).
 Interval: a measurement scale where data is grouped into
categories with orderly and equal distances between the
categories. There is always an arbitrary zero point.
 Ratio: contains features of all three.
How to Interpret Data
When interpreting data, an analyst must try to discern the
differences between correlation, causation and coincidences, as
well as many other bias – but he also has to consider all the
factors involved that may have led to a result. There are various
data interpretation methods one can use.

In this part, we will look at the two main methods of interpretation

of data: with a qualitative and a quantitative analysis.
 Qualitative Data Interpretation
Qualitative data analysis can be summed up in one word – categorical.
With qualitative analysis, data is not described through numerical
values or patterns, but through the use of descriptive context (i.e., text).
Typically, narrative data is gathered by employing a wide variety of
person-to-person techniques. These techniques include:
 Observations: detailing behavioral patterns that occur within an
observation group. These patterns could be the amount of time spent
in an activity, the type of activity and the method of communication
employed.
 Documents: much like how patterns of behavior can be observed,
different types of documentation resources can be coded and divided
based on the type of material they contain.
 Interviews: one of the best collection methods for narrative data.
 Enquiry responses can be grouped by theme, topic or category. The
interview approach allows for highly-focused data segmentation.

A key difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis is

clearly noticeable in the interpretation stage. Qualitative data, as it is
widely open to interpretation, must be “coded” so as to facilitate the
grouping and labeling of data into identifiable themes. As person-to-
person data collection techniques can often result in disputes
pertaining to proper analysis, qualitative data analysis is often
summarized through three basic principles: notice things, collect things,
think about things.
Quantitative Data Interpretation
If quantitative data interpretation could be summed up in one word
(and it really can’t) that word would be “numerical.” There are few
certainties when it comes to data analysis, but you can be sure that if
the research
you are engaging in has no numbers involved, it is not quantitative
research. Quantitative analysis refers to a set of processes by which
numerical data is analyzed. More often than not, it involves the use
of statistical modeling such as standard deviation, mean and median.
Let’s quickly review the most common statistical terms:

 Mean: a mean represents a numerical average for a set of

responses. When dealing with a data set (or multiple data sets), a
mean will represent a central value of a specific set of numbers. It is
the sum of the values divided by the number of values within the
data set. Other terms that can be used to describe the concept are
arithmetic mean, average and mathematical expectation.

 Standard deviation: this is another statistical term commonly

appearing in quantitative analysis. Standard deviation reveals the
distribution of the responses around the mean. It describes the
degree of consistency within the responses; together with the
mean, it provides insight into data sets.
 Frequency distribution: this is a measurement gauging the
rate of a response appearance within a data set. When using a
survey, for example, frequency distribution has the capability of
determining the number of times a specific ordinal scale
response appears (i.e., agree, strongly agree, disagree, etc.).
Frequency distribution is extremely keen in determining the
degree of consensus among data points.

Typically, quantitative data is measured by visually presenting

correlation testsnbetween two or more variables of significance.
 Different processes can be used together or separately, and
comparisons can be made to ultimately arrive at a conclusion.
Other signature interpretation processes of quantitative data
include:
 Regression analysis
 Cohort analysis
 Predictive and prescriptive analysis

Why Data Interpretation Is Important

The purpose of collection and interpretation is to acquire useful
and usable information and to make the most informed decisions
possible. From businesses, to newlyweds researching their first
home, data collection and interpretation provides limitless
benefits for a wide range of institutions and individuals.
 Data analysis and interpretation, regardless of method
and qualitative/quantitative status, may include the following
characteristics:
 Data identification and explanation
 Comparing and contrasting of data
 Identification of data outliers
 Future predictions

Data analysis and interpretation, in the end, helps improve

processes and identify problems. It is difficult to grow and make
dependable improvements without, at the very least, minimal
data collection and interpretation. What is the key word?
Dependable. What are a few of the business benefits of digital
age data analysis and interpretation?
1) Informed decision-making: A decision is only as good as
the knowledge that formed it. Informed data decision making
has the potential to set industry leaders apart from the rest of
the market pack.
2) Anticipating needs with trends identification: data insights
provide knowledge, and knowledge is power. The insights
obtained from market and consumer data analyses have the
ability to set trends for peers within similar market segments.

3) Cost efficiency: Proper implementation of data analysis

processes can provide businesses with profound cost
advantages within their industries.
1) Informed decision-making: A decision is only as good as
the knowledge that formed it. Informed data decision making
has the potential to set industry leaders apart from the rest of
the market pack.
2) Anticipating needs with trends identification: data insights
provide knowledge, and knowledge is power. The insights
obtained from market and consumer data analyses have the
ability to set trends for peers within similar market segments.

3) Cost efficiency: Proper implementation of data analysis

processes can provide businesses with profound cost
advantages within their industries.

4) Clear foresight: companies that collect and analyze their data

gain better knowledge about themselves, their processes and
performance. They can identify performance challenges when
they arise and take action to overcome them. Data interpretation
through visual representations lets them process their findings
faster and make better-informed decisions on the future of the
company.
Various methods of data presentation can be used to present data
and facts based on available data set. Widely used format and
data presentation techniques are mentioned below:

1.As Text – Raw data with proper formatting, categorization,

indentation is most extensively used and is a very effective way
of presenting data. Text format is widely found in books, reports,
research papers and in this article itself.
a.With the rearranged data, pertinent data worth mentioning can
be easily recognized. The following is one way of presenting
data in textual form.
b.Stem-and-leaf Plot is a table which sorts data according to a
certain pattern. It involves separating a number into two parts.
In a two-digit number, the stem consists of the first digit, and the
 leaf consists of the second digit. While in a three-digit number, the
stem consists of the first two digits, and the leaf consists of the last
digit. In a one-digit number, the stem is zero.
Below is the stem-and-leaf plot of the ungrouped data given in
the example.
Stem Leaves 0 -9
1 -7,8
2 -0,3,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
3 -4,4,5,5,7,8,8,8,8,9,9,9
4 -2,3,3,4,4,5,5,5,6,6,6,8,9
5 -0,0,0
Utilizing the stem-and-leaf plot, we can readily see the order of
the data. Thus, we can say that the top ten got scores 50, 50, 50,
49, 48, 46, 46, 46,45, and 45 and the ten lowest scores are 9, 17,
18, 20, 23,23,24,25,26, and 27.
 2.In Tabular Form – Tabular form is generally used to differentiate,
categorise, relate different datasets. It can be a simple pros & cons
table, or a data with corresponding value such as annual GDP, a bank
statement, monthly expenditure etc. Quantitative data usually require
such tabular form.
A frequency distribution table (FDT)- is a table which shows the data
arranged into different classes(or categories) and the number of cases(or
frequencies) which fall into each class.
Age Frequency
Table 1.1 12 2
Frequency Distribution for 13 13
the Ages of 50 Students 14 27
Enrolled in Statistics 15 4
16 3
17 1
N=50
a. Relative FDT
relative frequency = class frequency
sum of all frequencies
b. Cumulative FDT or Complete
FDT
c. Contingency FDT-This is a table which shows the data enumerated
by cell. One type of such table is the “r by c” (r x c) where the
columns refer to “c” samples and the rows refer to “r” choices or
alternatives.
A complete FDT has class mark or midpoint (x), class
boundaries (c.b), relative frequency or percentage frequency,
and the less than cumulative frequency (<cf) and the greater
than cumulative frequency (>cf).
3.In Graphical Form – Data can further be presented in a simpler
and even easier form by means of using graphics. The input for
such graphical data can be another type of data itself or some
raw data. For example, a bar graph & pie chart takes tabular data
as input. The tabular data in such case is processed data itself
but provides limited use. Converting such data or raw data into
graphical form directly makes it quicker and easier to interpret.

a.Bar Charts/Bar Graphs: These are one of the most widely

used charts for showing the grown of a company over a period.
There are multiple options available like stacked bar graphs and
the option of displaying a change in numerous entities.
b.Line Chart: These are best for showing the change in
population, i.e., for showing the trends. These also work well for
explaining the growth of multiple areas at the same time.
c.Pie Charts: These work best for representing the share of
different components from a total 100%. For eg. contribution of
different sectors to GDP, the population of different states in a
country, etc.
d.Combo Chart: As the name suggests it is a combination of
more than one chart type. The one shown in the figure below is
a combination of line and bar graph. These save space and are
at times more effective than using two different charts. There
can even be 3 or more charts depending on the requirement.
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is used to illustrate what you expect to
find through your research, including how the variables you are
 considering might relate to each other.
You should construct one before you actually begin your
investigation.
"Miles and Huberman (1994) defined a conceptual framework as a
visual or written product, one that “explains, either graphically or in
narrative form, the main things to be studied—the key factors,
concepts, or variables—and the presumed relationships among them”
(p. 18).1 Here, I use the term in a broader sense, to refer to the actual
ideas and beliefs that you hold about the phenomena studied, whether
these are written down or not; this may also be called the “theoretical
framework” or “idea context” for the study. A valuable guide to
developing a conceptual framework and using this throughout the
research process, with detailed analyses of four actual studies, is
Ravitch and Riggan, Reason & Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks
Guide Research (2011). (Full disclosure: Sharon Ravitch is a former
student of mine, and I wrote the foreword for the book.)
The most important thing to understand about your conceptual
framework is that it is primarily a conception or model of what is out
there that you plan to study, and of what is going on with these things
and why—a tentative theory of the phenomena that you are
investigating. The function of this theory is to inform the rest of your
design— to help you to assess and refine your goals, develop realistic
and relevant research questions, select appropriate methods, and
identify potential validity threats to your 3 Conceptual Framework What
Do You Think Is Going On?

Purpose
1.Identify relevant variables
2.Define variables
3.Have an idea of analysis
How to develop conceptual framework for a qualitative research
study
Qualitative research’s conceptual framework can be developed based
on your research problem, objective & question(s). The goal of the
conceptual framework is to illustrate your research approach in some
pictorial & text forms to ease readers’ understanding of your research
approach.

Steps in Developing Conceptual Framework.

1.Identifying the relevant concept.
2.Defining those concepts.
3.Operationalizing the concepts.
4.Identifying any moderating or intervening variables.
5.Identifying the relationships between variables.
 The pieces of the conceptual framework are borrowed but the
researcher provides the structure. To develop the structure you could:
Identify the key words used in the subject area of your study.
Draw out the key things within something you have already written
about the subject area - literature review.
Take one key concept, idea or term at a time and brainstorm all the
other things that might be related and then go back and select those
that seem most relevant.
Whichever is used it will take time and a number of
iterations and the focus is both on the content and
the inter-relationships.
 How does it look?
It can take the form of Equation or a
diagram or may simply description of how
the variables are related.
Practice Task : The Bar Chart
The bar graph given below shows the sales of books (in thousand
numbers) from six branches of a publishing company during two
consecutive years 2000 and 2001. Based on the data presented, answer
the following questions. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the
activity.
3. What percent of the average sales of branches B1, B2 and B3 in
2001 is the average sales of branches B1, B3 and B6 in 2000?
A. 75% B. 77.5%
C. 82.5% D. 87.5%

4.What is the average sales of all the branches (in thousand

numbers) for the year 2000?
A.73 B. 80
C. 83 D. 88

5.Total sales of branches B1, B3 and B5 together for both the

years (in thousand numbers) is?
A. 250 B. 310
C. 435 D. 560
1. What is the ratio of the total sales of branch B2 for both years to
the total sales of branch B4 for both years?
A. 2:3
B. 3:5
C. 4:5
D. 7:9

2.Total sales of branch B6 for both the years is what percent of the
total sales of branches B3 for both the years?
A. 68.54%
B. 71.11%
C. 73.17%
D. 75.55%
1.What is the approximate size of Mr. Smith's
class?

a.40 Students
b.20 Students
c.45 Students
d.4 Students
 2.How many more students are in Mr. Smith's
class than in Mrs. Jones's class?

a.25 Students
b.5 Students
c.10 Students
d.15 Students

3.What is the total number of students in Ms.

Jones's and Ms. Willis's classes?

a.55 Students
b.45 Students
c.65 Students
d.60 Students
4. What is the total of all students in all
four classes at Central High School?
a.120 Students
b.14 Students
c.130 Students
d.140 Students

5. Approximately how many hours a

day are spent sleeping? (24
hrs/day)

e.6 hrs
f.9 hrs
g.8 hrs
h.10 hrs
6. According to this graph, for every 24 hrs,
about how many hours are spent
socializing and watching TV?

a.4 hrs
b.2 hrs
c.5 hrs
d.6 hrs

7. Approximately how many hours a day

are spent in school and doing homework?

e.7 hrs
f.8.5 hrs
g.9 hrs
h.8 hrs
8.What does the scale on the left beginning
with 0 and ending with 7 represent?

a. Number of students selling candy

b. Number of cases of candy sold
c. Number of candy each month
d. Number of days each month that
candy was sold

9.Which two MONTHS had approximately

the same amount of candy sold?
a. September & February
b. October & March
c. November & March
d. September & December
10. What was the total amount of
candy sold during the school
year shown in the graph?

a.27.5 Cases
b.43 Cases
c.35.5 Cases
d.23 Cases