Tropical Revolving Storms and

Relevant Storm Terminologies…

 Tropical Revolving Storm

A tropical revolving storm or a TRS is a storm system with a low-pressure centre, around which
winds of gale force (34 knots or force 8 or more) blowing spirally inwards, anticlockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere (NH) and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere (SH).

https://fb.watch/8IQyxHD2Z9/ video of a turning typhoon

 Common Terminologies Regarding
Wind Speed and Storms
The word cyclone has been derived from Greek word ‘cyclos’
which means ‘coiling of a snake’

“Hurricane" and “Typhoon" are region specific names for a

strong “

Hurricanes are tropical cyclones over the Atlantic Ocean and

Typhoons over the Pacific Ocean
Tropical Cyclone (TC) - is a rotational low-pressure system in
the tropics when the central pressure falls by 5 to 6 hPa from
the surrounding and maximum sustained wind speed reaches
34 knots (about 62 kmph)

Maximum Sustained Wind - is the highest 3 minutes surface

wind occurring within the circulation of the system.

Such Surface Wind are observed (or, more often, estimated) at

the standard meteorological height of 10 m (33 ft) in an
unobstructed exposure (i.e., not blocked by buildings or trees).

Gale force wind - average surface wind speed of 34 to 47 knots (62 to

88 km/h).
 Storm force wind - average surface wind speed of 48 to 63 knots

Hurricane force wind - average surface wind speed 64 knots or more.

Average wind speed - Speed of the wind averaged over the previous
10 minutes (mean surface wind) as read from the anemogram or three
(3) minutes mean determined with the non-recording anemometer or
estimated wind at sea by the mariners using the Beaufort scale.

65 kph
Speed in Ave. wind speed = 6
km/h
55 kph
1200 1205 1210
Elapsed time
Squally wind - when sudden increases of wind speed occur in squalls
with the increased speed reaching a minimum of 22 knots (40 km/h) and
persist for at least one minute.

Mean wind speed - average wind speed.

Maximum sustained wind - maximum value of the average wind

speed at the surface.

Gust - instantaneous peak value of surface wind speed, recorded

or expected.

Panel members or member countries or countries - Countries

constituting the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones viz:
Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman (Sultanate of),
Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand.

ESCAP - Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
One example: synoptic scale
Energy potential (also called the
Energy Potential - the energy input from warm water and humid large scale or
of the El Nino
phenomenon, air over tropical oceans. cyclonic scale)
the sea being is a horizontal
warmer Energy Potential of a tropical cyclone is generated by the release of length scale of
compared to the heat (the Latent Heat) through the condensation of water vapour to the order of
normal sea water droplets/rain. Only a small percentage (3%) of this released 1,000 km (620
temperature… mi) or more
energy is converted into Kinetic energy to maintain cyclone circulation.
Warmer water
readily supplies A mature cyclone releases energy equivalent to that of 100 hydrogen Convection?
large amount of bombs. The rising up
moisture… Cyclone - Tropical cyclone of warm air
So during El and the cloud
Nino season, Cyclonic disturbance - A non frontal synoptic scale low pressure area formation
simple low associated
originating over tropical waters with organized convection and definite
pressure areas with it
often develops cyclonic wind circulation.
into strong
(super) Cyclone Alert*- a priority message for the Government Officials
typhoons… containing tropical cyclone information and advisories issued
generally 48 hours before the commencement of adverse weather
Cyclone warning - a priority message containing tropical cyclone
warning and advisories issued generally 24 hours in advance of the
commencement of adverse weather.

Cyclonic storm - a cyclonic disturbance in which the maximum

average surface wind speed is in the range of 34 to 47 knots (62 to 88
km/h).
Severe cyclonic storm - a cyclonic disturbance in which the
maximum average surface wind speed is in the range of 48 to 63
knots (89 to 118 km/h).

Severe cyclonic storm with a core of hurricane winds - a cyclonic

disturbance in which the maximum average surface wind speed is 64
knots (119 km/h) or more.
Tropical storm - Tropical cyclone
Tropical cyclone - generic term for a non frontal synoptic scale cyclone
originating over tropical or subtropical waters with organized convection
and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation. The term is also used for a
storm in the South-West Indian Ocean in which the maximum of
sustained wind speed # is estimated to be in the range of 64 to 90 knots
and in the South Pacific and South-East Indian Ocean with the maximum
of the sustained wind speed over 33 knots.
(Note: # Maximum sustained wind speed: Average period of one, three,
or ten minutes depending upon the regional practices.)

Very severe cyclonic storm - a cyclonic disturbance in which maximum

wind average is 64 knots to 119 knots (119 to 221 km/h).

Super cyclone - a cyclonic disturbance in which maximum wind speed

is 120 knots and above (222 km/h and above).
Speed of movement of the tropical cyclone - speed of movement
of the centre of the tropical cyclone.
Eye of the tropical cyclone - the relatively clear and calm area inside the
circular wall of convective clouds, the geometric centre of which is the
centre of the tropical cyclone.

Direction of movement of the tropical cyclone - the direction towards

which the centre of the tropical cyclone is moving
Centre of the tropical cyclone - the centre of the cloud eye, or if not
discernible, of the wind/pressure centre.
Central pressure of a tropical cyclone - surface pressure at the centre of
the tropical cyclone as measured or estimated.
 Centre fix of the tropical cyclone - the estimated location of the
centre of a tropical cyclone. (obtained by means other than the aircraft
probing of the cyclone i.e. fixation of the centre with the help of land-
based and other radars, satellite and conventional observations like
Naming basis… surface and upper-air observations, ships' reports, commercial aircraft
observations, etc.)

Name of the Tropical Cyclone - once wind speed in a cyclonic

disturbance attains a 34 kt threshold value it will be given an
identification name.

Confidence in the centre position - degree of confidence in the

centre position of a tropical cyclone expressed as the radius of the
smallest circle within which the centre may be located by the analysis.

- Position good implies a radius of 30 nautical miles (55 kilometres) or

less.
- Position fair, a radius of 30 to 60 nautical miles (55 to 110 km) and
- Position poor, a radius of greater than 60 nautical miles (110 km).
Tropical depression - depression
Depression - a cyclonic disturbance in which the maximum sustained
surface wind speed is between 17 and 33 knots (31 and 61 km/h). If the
maximum sustained wind speed lies in the range 28 knots (52 km/h) to 33
knots (61 km/h) the system may be called a "deep depression".

Tropical cyclone advisory - a priority message for exchanging

information, internationally, on tropical cyclones in the Bay of Why before?
Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Because it is
an outlook!
Tropical Weather Outlook- a priority message for exchange Means a bit
between the Panel countries of synoptic and satellite inferences advanced
before the
happening!
Post-Landfall Outlook - a bulletin is issued 12 hours before cyclone
landfall and contains more specific forecasts about place and time of
landfall.
Pre Cyclone Watch - a bulletin contains early warning about likely
development of a cyclonic storm and an indication of the coastal belt likely
to experience adverse weather
Storm season - the periods April to May and October to mid-December
during which most of the cyclonic storms occurs. This season may differ in
different regions of the world.

Storm surge - the difference between the actual water level under
the influence of a meteorological disturbance (storm tide) and the level
which would have been attained in the absence of the meteorological
disturbance (i.e. astronomical tide).
(Storm surge results mainly from the shoreward movement of water
under the action of wind stress. A minor contribution is also made by
the hydrostatic rise of water resulting from the lowered barometric
pressure).
Storm tide - the actual water level as influenced by a weather
disturbance. The storm tide consists of the normal astronomical tide and
the storm surge.
Visual storm signals - visual signals displayed at coastal points to warn
ships of squally winds, gales and tropical cyclones.
Weather warning - meteorological message issued to provide
appropriate warnings of hazardous weather conditions.

Zone of disturbed weather - a zone in which the pressure is low

relative to the surrounding region and there is convective cloud
masses which are not organized

The difference between a hurricane and a typhoon is

the location where the storm occurs.
 TRS = Tropical Revolving Storm
Cyclone means a low pressure area. The
term is used relevantly in the extra
tropical (30-60 deg N/S) areas.
Tropical cyclone is more of the tropical
revolving storms or cyclones that occur
in the tropics..

Hurricane/TRS
Hurricane/TRS
Typhoon/TRS Atlantic Ocean
Western Pacific
Cyclone/TRS E
Region

Indian Ocean

Cyclone / Willy Willy/TRS

 TRS = Tropical Revolving Storm = plainly Bagyo!

Mid latitude Lows

Storm

Sto e
Storm=

can
rm
Typhoon

=H
25 deg N

urr
Storm=Hurri

i
cane
Storm = cyclone
The Tropics

03 deg N
I T C Z 00 deg. Equa
I T C Z I T C Z
03 deg S

25 deg S

Storm = cyclone
 Already a
TRS!

At the center of a tropical cyclone, it is typically around 960

millibars, and in a very intense “super typhoon” of the western
Pacific it may be as low as 880 millibars.
Tropical Revolving Storm is an intense rotating depression (a Temperate
depressions –
region of low pressure at the surface) which develops over the
these are the
tropical oceans. It consists of a rotating mass of warm and humid storms in the
air and creates strong winds, thunderstorm , heavy rains, very upper latitudes
above or below
heavy seas and swell etc.
the tropics…
Some of the important characteristics of a Tropical Revolving
Storm (TRS) are:

• They appear smaller size than temperate depressions

• They form near the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone, a
zone of instability
• They have nearly circular isobars
• They result in a very steep pressure gradient
• They have great intensity
 Where to get information of
incoming Tropical Revolving
Storms…
By…
Warning and alerting messages

through …
Electronic Medium…

1. Radio
Marine VHF Radio

MF/HF Radio
RadioFax/Weather
Facsimile
 2. NAVTEX

The Radio/Telex/NAVTEX – A relevant NavArea must be

selected for the message.

3. Inmarsat-C Telex
EGC- Via Sat- C normally.
4. Weather Routing Agencies – With dedicated team for
the TRS / Storm watch and have multiple data from
reliable sources who can make a better and accurate assessment
of the forecast with suggestion to avoid the TRS.
5. Internet-based Options – If… vessel is equipped
with internet facility then such phenomena can be checked 7-
8 days in advance through various government operated sites.
Note:
All storms may not be detected by the coast meteorological
stations, in which all shipboard equipment and observation is
key in averting disaster.

On board, all other means at hand should be set on the right

frequencies and monitored closely, for they broadcast
comprehensive warnings with respect to known storms.
Respective ALRS Volumes can also be referred to for more
data and frequencies of radio stations in the vicinity. The
TELEX, is also a very important tool that is high on accuracy…
 Signs of incoming Tropical
Revolving Storms…

But before a TRS is encountered…How

and where can a mariner get signs of
an incoming TRS?
 1. Radar

Radar gives a fair warning of a Tropical Revolving Storm

(TRS) about 100 miles prior to approaching the TRS. The eye may
sometimes be seen on the screen. An area of rain surrounds the
eye (the eye of the storm is the storm centre) causing appreciable
clutter on the radar screen. However, the signs might be visible on
the radar, by the time it does become visible on the radar, the
vessel is probably already experiencing high seas and gale force
winds and rough weather overall. Action is to be taken before such
a situation arises.
By personal
observations on the…

2. Swell

When there is no sight of intervening land, the sea might

generate swell within a TRS, indicating an early warning of the
formation of the same, the swell normally travels as far as 500
nm from the center of the storm eye. Normally, the swell travels
outward from the direction of the storm.
 1011 mb
0400H =1000mb
0500H =997mb
0600H =994 mb

3. Atmospheric pressure

Monitor the barometer closely in case of suspicion of a brewing

storm. If the corrected barometer reading falls below 5 mb or
more for the mean reading for that time of the year (check the
Sailing Directions for accurate information of pressure readings),
TRS can be expected. Barometric pressure falling by 20 mb
means vessel is very close to the eye of the storm. The
barometer used must be corrected for latitude, height,
temperature etc. to achieve maximum possible accuracy and
efficiency.
 4. Wind

Wind direction and speed is generally fairly constant in the tropics.

Variation from the normal direction for the area and season, and
increasing wind speed, are indications of the approach of a Tropical
Revolving Storm, i.e., an appreciable change in the direction or
strength of the wind indicates a Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS) in
vicinity.
Backing and veering:
Backing and veering are the two terms used to describe changes
in wind direction. In the Northern Hemisphere, if the wind
direction changes in an anticlockwise direction it is said to
'back'. If it changes in a clockwise direction it is said to 'veer'.
If the wind changes from a NW to SW direction the wind has
backed. Veering would occur if the wind changed from the SW
to the NW
5. Clouds

A very candid and colorful sky at sunrise and sunset may be a sign
of a brewing TRS. Presence of cirrus clouds is visible at a
considerable distance of 300 to 600 miles from the TRS and as one
approaches the TRS, the Cirrus cloud can be in the form of strands
or filaments with aligned conditions and points towards the storm
center. Closer to the TRS, the clouds get lower and cover a bigger
area (altostratus), generally followed by cumulus clouds as one gets
even more closer to the Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS).
6. Visibility

Although it might sound like an oxymoron, exceptionally good

visibility exists when a TRS is lurking in proximity
The conditions associated with the
formation of tropical revolving storms…

Tropical Revolving Storm

The diameter of a tropical storm is normally less than 500 nm

even can be only 100 nm at its early stage of development.
Formation of Tropical Revolving
Storms…

The ingredients for tropical cyclones include a pre-existing

weather disturbance, warm tropical oceans, moisture, and
relatively light winds. If the right conditions persist long
enough, they can combine to produce the violent winds, large
waves, torrential rains, and floods associated with this
phenomenon. At times, when a weather system does not meet
all of these conditions, but is forecast to bring tropical storm or
hurricane force winds to land in the next day or two, it is called
a potential tropical cyclone.
Conditions associated with formation
of TRS...
TRS originate in latitudes between 5° & 20° North or South of
the equator and travel between W and WNW in the NH
and between W and WSW in the SH, at a speed of about 12
knots.

Why between 5° & 20° North or South of

the equator?
The air above the warm seas within these areas ( where surface
sea temperatures reach 27ºC ) is heated and rises. This causes the
formation of Cyclone or low pressure. As the air rises it cools then
condenses, forming clouds.
 More moisture = more condensation = more latent heat =
more energy for intensification

Latent heat = heat generator

Heav
ll
nfa
Heavy cloud formation and

y Rai
Rai

thunderstorm due to
avy

Vorticity due to condensation, releasing Latent

nfall
Heat
He

earth’s rotation

Area of
Low Pressure
Air from Higher pressure area
Air from Higher pressure area
Up draft of heated air mass rushing in at high speed
rushing in at high speed
rising with moisture from
evaporation
If TRS moves through area with less moisture or cooler seas, it wanes and dies off…
The mechanics of TRS formation…
1. Warm(over 27 0 C) moist air rises from the surface of the sea.
2. As it rises, it meets cooler air and moisture condenses to make clouds
and rain.
3. This condensation releases huge amounts of energy, producing
strong winds.
4. The winds are driven by the spin of the earth and go round and
round.
5. As the earth rotates the winds are sucked violently upwards in a
vortex which can be 1,000 kms wide. Wind speeds can be as high as
200km per hour.
Stages in the formation of
TRS…
The complete life cycle of a tropical cyclone usually spans about
9 days but can be only 2 or 3 days or more than 20 days
1. Birth (Formation)
The birth of a TRS is dependent upon six favourable
environmental conditions which are available in the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone. TRS gains energy from latent heat, driven by
significant thunderstorm activity and condensation of moist air. In
other words, tropical revolving storm formation can be called as a
gigantic vertical heat engine, which is also powered by earth’s
gravity and rotation. On satellite images, this stage appears as an
unusually active, but poorly organised area of convection
(thunderstorms). Sometimes curved cumulus clouds band towards
an active area of thunderstorms, which indicates the location of
the centre. At this stage, if TRS move inland, then they make little
or no damage but may form heavy rain and flooding in some
areas.
2. Premature Stage
In this stage, the area of convection continues and becomes more
organised. Also strengthening occurs simultaneously. The minimum
surface pressure rapidly drops well below than normal level. Gale-force
winds also develop with the strengthening pressure gradient. The
circulation centre is well defined and subsequently, an eye may begin to
form. Satellite and radar observations of the system show as the
distinctive spiral banding pattern. Premature Stage of a TRS can cause
devastating wind and storm surge effects upon coastline, but damage
occurs usually within a small area

3. Mature Stage
If the ocean and atmosphere environment continue to be favourable,
the storm may continue to intensify to this stage. This is the severe
storm stage, where the storm is most dangerous. Approximately half of
the storms can come up to this stage.
mature stage continued…
During this stage, the cyclonic circulation and extent of the gales
increase markedly. In satellite images, the cloud fields look highly
organised and become more symmetrical, with a well-centered,
distinct round eye. This stage remains for a day or so with maximum
intensity unless the cyclone remains in a highly favourable
environment

4. Decay Stage
At this stage, the warm core of TRS is destroyed, as the central
pressure increases and the maximum surface winds weaken. Decay
may occur very rapidly if the system moves into an unfavourable
atmospheric or geographic environment. At this stage, the heavy or
medium rain can be available.
TRS decay can also be caused by strong vertical wind shear, a change
in wind direction or speed with height. They are responsible for much
of the sensible weather (such as rain and snow) that people who live
in the mid-latitudes experience, especially during the winter months.

TRS may lose strength over land because of cool temperatures, lack
of moisture, and/or friction.

TRS form over low pressure regions with warm temperatures over
large bodies of water. The warm temperature causes the ocean water
to evaporate. The moisture is what fuels a hurricane. As the storm
moves over land, they are no longer fuelled by this moisture.
Therefore, the storm begins to slow down and die as it moves further
inland.

Secondly, storm experience more friction over land than over the ocean
water. This also slows down storm.
TRS do not only dissipate over land. Cool waters and strong winds may
also decrease the strength of a storm. A storm will begin to dissipate
over cooler waters because cooler waters do not evaporate as much
and, therefore, provide less moisture. Storms need light winds at high
levels in the atmosphere.

The demise of a TRS…

Landfall usually causes a hurricane to quickly decay. Hurricanes
require evaporation from the warm ocean surface to survive. Once a
hurricane makes landfall, it is separated from its ocean energy source,
and hence, can no longer extract heat from the ocean.
Since the air masses over land are drier and contain more aerosol
particles than over the ocean, less moisture is carried into the
storm, cloud coverage lessens, and air is cooled and then sinks,
disrupting the hurricane’s secondary circulation and hindering
critical thunderstorm development.
Demise of a TRS continued…
Increased roughness of the land surface also weakens a hurricane as
increased friction causes a reduction in surface circulation. Even if a
hurricane remains over the ocean, once the storm moves northward
(in the Northern Hemisphere/ southward in the Southern
Hemisphere) out of the tropical ocean and into the mid-latitudes, it
begins to move over colder water, again losing the warm water source
necessary to drive the hurricane. As less moisture is evaporated into
the atmosphere to supply cloud formation, the storm weakens. Even
when the ocean conditions are favourable for the hurricane to be
maintained, a hurricane may encounter an area of particularly dry and
dusty air, such as the Saharan Air Layer (SAL). Hurricane decay can also
be caused by strong vertical wind shear. This change in wind speed or
direction with height can enhance the mixing of drier environmental
air into the storm eyewall leading to down drafts, which
inhibit intensification.
Demise of a TRS continued…
Midlevel warming within the storm’s centre also reduces convective
activity and inhibits intensification. Without a strong secondary
circulation, a hurricane cannot be sustained.

As the hurricane moves towards the north and reaches the mid-
latitudes, it will transition itself to an Extra-tropical cyclone, a
process commonly called extra-tropical transition (ET), involving
the hurricane to loose its warm core, which furthermore weakens
the hurricane to become a cold core low. Then its wind field and
cloud field expand in size.
Once extra-tropical transition is complete, the storm is no longer
sustained from energy that it extracts from the ocean but the
environmental wind field (in the presence of temperature fronts).
Losing the vast source of evaporation from the warm ocean surface
near the tropics will then ultimately cause the hurricane to wane…
 s i tion
For Hurricanes in the Caribbean cal tran
ro p i
and Gulf of Mexico… at
extr If TRS doesn’t undergo
waning, it usually undergo an
extratropical transition,
meaning it will get absorbed
in the storm systems in the
upper latitudes, especially if
Area where the all atmospheric
hurricanes usually conditions are right.
die off

Flo
rid
co

a
x i
f Me
ulf o Usual p
ath
G hurrican of
es

Cuba
 Normal path of a typhoon 5
If TRS doesn’t
undergo waning, it
(Western Pacific) Easterly usually undergo an
extratropical

So
transition, meaning
6

ut
it will get absorbed

he
rly in the storm

as
4 te

ter
as Japan systems in the
e

l
upper latitudes
rth

y
No especially if the all
Area where atmospheric
China typhoons conditions are right.

usually die off

over big land Vertex
masses Taiwan
3
Northerly

Phil.
Archipelago

thw 2
No r 1
este Westerly
rly
MOVEMENT OF TROPICAL REVOLVING
STORMS…
Tropical depressions occur often in middle latitudes and tropical
cyclones that originate in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone. A
depression may often develop and travel in any direction whereas
tropical storms are mostly found to follow predicted path* in both
the hemispheres.

Tropical storms re-curve after following a particular track. It is

therefore very important for a mariner to predict the location,
magnitude and path of the storm, which is required to avoid these
regions or navigate with caution while in navigating these areas.
A tropical revolving storm or a TRS is a storm system with a low-
pressure centre, around which winds of gale force (34 knots or
force 8 or more) blowing spirally inwards, anticlockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere (NH) and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere (SH).

Somewhere along their track, TRS curve away from the equator –
curve to N and then re-curve to NE in the NH; curve to S and then
re-curve to SE in the SH.

Track – The route over which a TRS has already passed.

Path – The predicted route, over which, there is a possibility of
the TRS passing at near future.

Another point on the route is called the Vertex, which is the

westernmost point, of the TRS, when re-curving takes place.
The re-curving is such that
the storm travels around
the oceanic high (which is
situated at about 30°N
and 30°S in the middle of
large oceans). After re-
curving, the speed of
travel increases to about
15 to 20 knots.

Sometimes, a TRS does

not curve or re-curve at
all, but continues on its
original path, crosses the
coast and dissipates
quickly thereafter due to
friction and lack of
moisture.
It is important to note that all TRS’s do not follow such definite
paths and speeds. In their initial stages, occasional storms have
remained practically stationary or made small loops for as long as
four days.
Semi circles: If a storm is divided along the route, at which the
storm is passing, then one gets 2 parts, which are:
Right-hand semicircle (RHSC): It is
the half of the storm, which lies to
the right of the observer, who
faces along the route of the storm.
For a stationary observer, here the
wind veers steadily.
Left-hand semicircle (LHSC): It is
the half of the storm, which lies to
the left of the observer, who faces
along the route of the storm.
 In the northern hemisphere (NH), conditions on the right-hand side
of storms are more severe than those on their left-hand sides. For
that reason, in NH, RHSC is called the “dangerous semicircle” and
LHSC is called the “navigable semicircle”.
So again, as per navigator’s judgment, semicircles are two types,
which are:
Usual path of a
TRS in the
northern
hemisphere

Usual path of a
TRS in the
southern
hemisphere
Navigable semicircle — It is the side of a tropical cyclone, which
lies to the left of the direction of movement of the storm in the
Northern hemisphere (to the right in the Southern Hemisphere),
where the winds are weaker and better for the navigation
purpose, although all parts of TRS are more or less dangerous to
mariners.

Dangerous semicircle — It is the side of a tropical cyclone, which

lies to the right of the direction of movement of the storm in the
Northern Hemisphere (to the left in the Southern Hemisphere),
where the storm has the strongest winds and heavy seas.
Tropical Revolving Storm…

The Position of a
Tropical
Revolving Storm is the
location of its eye…

Track – The route over which a TRS

has already passed.

Path – The predicted route, over

which, there is a possibility of the
TRS to pass at the near future
The path of a TRS greatly depends upon the wind belt in which it Which winds
drive TRS in the
is located. A Tropical Revolving Storm originating in the eastern westward
tropical Atlantic, for example, is driven westward by easterly direction?
trade winds in the tropics. Eventually, these storms turn north-
westward around the subtropical high and migrate into higher
latitudes.
How many days
Scientists can usually predict its path for 3-5 days in advance. in advance?

A Storm’s possible trajectory is usually represented as a cone,

which shrinks over time as the error in
the prediction decreases.

To predict the path of storms, meteorologists can use many

different models. But…
…But for mariners

The common practice is…

 1. From the last known position of
the TRS, draw lines 40 degrees on
both sides of the typhoon track.

2. Take the maximum predicted

distance that the TRS travels
Take note of
these during the next 48 hours
steps…

3. Using the last known position of

the TRS, draw an arc with a radius
equal to the predicted distance
determined in statement 2 above.
The area bounded by this arc and
the two radial lines drawn in
statement 1 above is the DANGER
SECTOR.
 1 nm = 1.852 km

r
cto
Se
er
ng
31

Da
1n
m

Example:
Typhoon
moving at 12
Km per Hour

12 kph x 48 h = 576 km / 1.852 km= 311 nm

The
vessel
1200U UTC
Lat 11 deg N – Long 120 deg E
Speed of Movement = 12 Km/H
How is the typhoon's storm area
determined? Where’s the
location of a
typhoon’s
The strongest wind? strongest winds?

- on the verge of the eye-wall of a typhoon

- wind strength diminishes along the outward radius from the
centre until it drops to an average wind speed of 50 km per hour
What is a storm
(14 meters per second, which is equivalent to category 7 of wind radius? What
intensity) where the distance from the centre is called the about storm
typhoon storm radius area? How many
kilometers on
the average are
- the storm area is the area within the storm radius storm radius?
- the typhoon storm radius averages between 200 and 300
kilometres, with bigger ones between 400 and 500 kilometres
Anatomy of a Tropical Revolving Storm…
What Seafarers Should Do After The
Vessel Receives Storm Warning?
The prime reason for which every seafarer wished “Smooth
sailing and Calm seas” before boarding a vessel is to keep
them safe from storms

Rough weather situation has been faced at least once or

more by every seafarer during the course of his/her career.
Some of the most common forms of heavy or rough weather
are tropical depressions or storms, typhoons, cyclones,
hurricanes, etc., generated due to varying atmospheric
pressures over different parts of the earth.
 The following are a few precautions which
seafarers must follow while encountering
tropical storm or navigating in areas of their
frequent occurrence…

Take note
1. Use Available Information:
of these Tropical storms and depressions are formed by pressure and
items: temperature variations. A mariner has access to information
regarding seasonal areas and frequency of occurrence through
Maritime Safety Information via EGC, Admiralty Sailing
Directions, Ocean passages of the world and several other
means. Thus if prior information is available regarding the legs
of a voyage where the rough weather is expected a sheltered
passage or alternate route can be carefully planned to divert
the vessel timely when required.
Take note 2. Study Weather Report:
of these
items: Often weather report and weather fax give warnings well in
advance about unsettled weather conditions. Thus a careful
selection of NAVAREAS and type of weather reports by the
navigating officer can be instrumental in obtaining early
warning about a storm. Frequent observations from various
meteorological instruments and prevailing weather on board
can be used to confirm weather reports.

3. Keep Away From Centre of Storm:

Once the presence of a storm or depression is confirmed. It is
vital to establish the distance of the vessel from it, the location
of the eye of the storm, the centre of the depression, and
storm’s track and path. Buys Ballot’s law states – Face the
wind and centre of low pressure will be from 90 degrees …
Take note … to 135 degrees on the right side in N hemisphere and on the
of these left side in S hemisphere. It is advisable to keep at least 250
items: miles away from the centre of a storm however some
companies prescribe specific distances in their Safety
Management Manuals.

In this case, if
4. Check Stability Of The Vessel:
the vessel is A prudent check is required on the stability condition of the vessel and
already
unstable, with
its compliance with intact stability criteria. Damage stability conditions
no good to be evaluated carefully before the beginning of a voyage as it will
balance before assure compliance with damage stability requirements. A vessel can
encountering thus take heavy weather ballast while or before proceeding to rough
storms, then
weather areas. Heavy weather ballast provides additional stability to the
the situation
can prove to vessel and by lowering the centre of gravity makes the vessel more
be seriously stable as the GM* increases. Heavy weather ballast tanks are designated
difficult. on board vessels and if those tanks carried oil previously they must be
crude oil washed before carrying heavy weather ballast in them.
Ballasting a 5. Use Ballast Tanks To Minimise Free Surface Effect:
vessel is an
effective way of As a part of good seamanship, all the ballast tanks which are
improving slack can be pressed up to minimise the free surface effect
stability… which will also help to increase the GM. Well planned stowage
of cargo, ballast or both can minimise the number of slack or
partly filled tanks.
In rough 6. Be Careful While Changing Speed, Angle, and
weather,
changing speed
Direction:
and course Often waves associated with a storm or depression causes a
needs utmost
consideration reduction in intact stability of vessel with a threat of capsizing or
of the direction rolling of the vessel to very large angles. IMO circular MSC 1228
of the waves provides guidelines with respect to careful reduction of speed,
and the wind…
changing the angle and direction of encounter and adjusting
encounter period of waves to avoid parametric or synchronous
rolling motions.
Otherwise, 7. Secure Loose Equipment/Cargo on Deck:
these
equipment/
cargoes will For vessels with lesser freeboard, decks are washed frequently
surely end by seas with greater magnitudes. Thus securing of various loose
up washed
out from equipment on deck, additional lashings to be taken to strengthen
deck… and prevent their loss being washed away into the sea. Safety
lifelines can be rigged on vessels carrying cargoes on deck.
Additional lashing must be taken to secure anchors, lifeboats, life
buoys and life rafts

And…
…If All Else Fails
Try to steer for the area of the ocean that is going to see the
shallowest waves and the lowest winds," The "low side" or
"clean side" of the storm is usually the side counter-clockwise
from its leading edge.

A ship's survival depends on two Vessels in confined

things -
waters, near rocks
and other
obstructions, or
even shallows are
Sea room and Steering-way usually more
endangered when
they cannot
1. Sea room means that the ship is a safe distance from anything maneuver away
from the storms…
it might crash into, like a coastline. Cargo ships try to stay well
 offshore if they must face a major storm at sea. If a ship is on a
"lee shore," with land close by downwind, the storm can drive the
ship onto the land and wreck it.

Steering way means 2. Steering-way means that the ship is moving forward with
the capacity for the enough power to steer rather than just getting pushed around
vessel to move to a
desired direction to by waves and wind. The ship must keep its bow (the front end)
evade the adverse pointing into the waves to plough through them safely, since a
effect of the storm. massive wave striking the ship's side could roll the vessel over
This has a lot to do
with the vessels and sink it. Wind and waves will try to turn the vessel, and
machineries that pushing against them requires forward momentum.
provide propulsion. A
vessel with stopped
engine cannot Winning a fight against the sea depends on having a well-
maneuver, therefore maintained ship, a trained and experienced crew, and a healthy
powerless against the
storm… dose of good luck.
 Local Nomenclature of
Tropical Revolving Storms
(TRS)
Cyclones were usually not named. The tradition started
with hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean, where tropical storms that
reach sustained wind speeds of 39 miles per hour were
given names. ... Tropical storms are given names and they retain the
name if they develop into a cyclone/hurricane/typhoon.
How are storms
named in the
The practice of naming storms has a long history. Before the 20th olden days?
century, notable tropical cyclones (also called typhoons or
hurricanes, depending on geography) were generally identified by
the time when they occurred or the location where they struck.
Thus, the San Mateo Hurricane of 1565—which, by decimating a
French fleet on its way to attack the Spanish settlement in St.
Augustine, helped doom France’s efforts to control Florida—got its
name because it made landfall on September 22, the day after the
feast of St. Matthew. Meanwhile, the hurricane that devastated
Galveston, Texas, in 1900, killing 6,000–12,000 people, is
remembered as the Great Galveston Hurricane.
 Who originated
The practice of giving storms personal names appears to have the naming of
storms?
originated with Clement Wragge, an Australian meteorologist who
in the 1890s entertained himself by naming storms after women, How are storms
mythical figures, and politicians that he didn’t like. The modern named after?
system of using personal names developed during World War II, Why not
when meteorologists began using women’s names—often those of designate a
wives or girlfriends—instead of cumbersome designations based storm according
to the latitude
on latitude and longitude. Short and quickly understood, names and longitude
were easier to transmit over the radio and easier to keep straight if where they
there was more than one storm in a given area. The system was formed?
formalized in 1953 when the National Weather Service put
together an alphabetical list of female names to be used for storms
in the Atlantic basin. Male names were added to the list in 1979
when women’s groups pointed out the sexism of using only female
names.
Naming of Storms in modern days…
In 1953, to avoid the repetitive use of names, the system was
revised so that storms would be given female names. By doing
this, the National Weather Service was mimicking the habit of
naval meteorologists, who named the storms after women,
much as ships at sea were traditionally named after women.
In what year do
The United States began using female names for storms. Naming names of men
were used in
hurricanes solely after women came to an end in 1978 when storm names?
men's and women's names were included in the Eastern North
Pacific storm lists. In 1979, male and female names were
included in lists for the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico.
Storms being named in alphabetical order…
The World Meteorological Organization developed Retired here means
a list of names that are assigned in alphabetical order to the name will no
longer be used
tropical storms as they are discovered in each hurricane
again if it was a
season. Names can be repeated after an interval of six years, but especially severe
the names of especially severe storms are permanently retired from storm, like
use. Yolanda/Haian.

How are names for hurricanes brought about?

For the process of naming storms in the Atlantic Basin, there are 21
possibilities of names to choose from per year, based of six rotating
lists, which are recycled every seventh year.
For typhoons, there is one list with 140 names submitted from
nations in the region such as China, Japan, Vietnam and Cambodia.
There is no restrictions to how many can be used in a calendar year.
In the United States, NOAA's National Hurricane Centre does not For hurricanes,
control the naming of tropical storms. Instead, there is a strict who controls the
naming of
procedure established by the World Meteorological Organization. storms?
For Atlantic hurricanes, there is a list of male and
female names which are used on a six-year rotation. Remember,
storms in the
Indian ocean
In the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea tropical regions are
cyclones are identified by a location code, that is BOB for those in referred to as
cyclones…
the Bay of Bengal and for those in the Arabian Sea it will be ARB,
followed by a four-digit number. The number will comprise the last
two digits of the year followed by a two-digit sequential number,
starting with 01 each year.
Example: The second tropical cyclone of 2004 in the Bay of Bengal
will be identified as BOB 0402
 In the Pacific
In the Pacific and South China Sea, typhoons are named by the and South
Japanese Meteorological Agency based on a database organized China Sea,
who does the
by the World Meteorological Organization’s Tropical Cyclone naming of
program, which also compiles the list of Atlantic hurricane names. storms?
Forecasters have a specific list that they draw from and
periodically a storm name is retired and a new name added.

The Philippines are also a part of the list of nations which submit
names. However, according to the Philippine Atmospheric,
Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration
(PAGASA), they will use local names whenever a cyclone is within
the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR).
So when Typhoon Neoguri formed in early July 2014, it became
known as Florita after it entered the PAR. The Philippines'
naming process rotates through four different lists of 25 names,
with every letter represented except X. Every fifth year the list is
recycled. In the event that there are more than 25 tropical
cyclones, an auxiliary list of 10 names is used. There are only 21
names allotted each year for Atlantic hurricanes, because there
are not many names with the letters Q, U, X, Y and Z. If 21 named
tropical cyclones occur, additional storms will take names from the
Greek alphabet according to the National Hurricane Centre

Storm Naming Conventions: Local and

International names…
The Joint Typhoon Warning Centre in Honolulu started
monitoring and naming storms in the Western Pacific region
in 1945, originally using female names in English alphabetical
order. That list was revised in 1979 by introducing male names to
be used in alternation with the female names.

The Philippine Weather Bureau started naming storms within Until the present
their area of responsibility in 1963, using female Filipino names in the Philippines
ending in the former native alphabetical order. The Bureau typhoons are
locally named with
continued to monitor typhoons until the agency's abolition in female names.
1972, after which its duties were transferred to the newly- Unless a typhoon
established PAGASA. This often resulted in Western Pacific is predicted to be
of catastrophic
cyclone carrying two names: an international name and a local strength, a male
name used within the Philippines. This two-name scheme is still name is
followed today. exceptionally
given.
In 2000, cyclone monitoring duties in the Western Pacific were
transferred from the JTWC to the Japan Meteorological Agency,
the RSMC of the World Meteorological Organization. The
international naming scheme of the typhoons was replaced with a
sequential list of names contributed by 14 nations in the region,
including the Philippines. The new scheme largely uses terms for
local features of the contributing nation, such as animals, plants,
foods and adjectives in the native language. The rotation of names
is based on the alphabetical order of the contributing nations. The
Philippines, however, would maintain its own naming scheme for
its local forecasts. In 2001, PAGASA revised its naming scheme to
contain longer annual lists with a more mixed set of names.
Currently, the JMA and PAGASA each assign names to typhoons that form
within or enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility. The JMA naming
scheme for international use contains 140 names described above. The
list is not restricted by year; the first name to be used in a typhoon
season is the name after the last-named cyclone of the preceding season.
The PAGASA naming scheme for Philippine use contains four lists, each
containing twenty-five names arranged in alphabetical order. In the
Philippines every typhoon season begins with the first name in the
assigned list, and the rolls of names are each reused every four years. An
auxiliary list of ten names is used when the main list in a year had been
exhausted. Not all Western Pacific cyclones are given names by both
weather agencies, as JMA does not name tropical depressions, and
PAGASA does not name cyclones outside the Philippine Area of
Responsibility.
In the case of both weather agencies( JMA & PAG ASA), names are This applies only for
local storm names in
“retired” after a typhoon that carried it caused severe or costly the Philippines. 300
damage and loss of life. Retirement is decided by the agencies' deaths or ₱1 billion in
committees, although in PAGASA's case, names are routinely damage serves as the
basis for retiring a
retired when the cyclone caused at least 300 deaths or ₱1 billion in particular storm name.
damage in the Philippines. Retired names are replaced with
another name for the next rotation, for JMA by the nation that
submitted the retired name, and for PAGASA with a name sharing
the same first letter as the retired name.

Regions and Seasons of Greatest Frequency

of TRS
The Philippines is the “most exposed country in the world to
tropical storms" according to a Time Magazine article in 2013
On an annual time scale in the Philippines, typhoon activity reaches
a minimum in May, before increasing steadily to June, and spiking
from July to September, with August being the most active month
for tropical cyclones. Activity reduces significantly in October.
Frequency of typhoons in the Philippines…

Approximately twenty tropical cyclones enter the Philippine

Area of Responsibility yearly, an area which incorporates parts
of the Pacific Ocean, South China Sea and the Philippine
Archipelago (with the exception of Tawi-Tawi province). Among
these cyclones, ten will be typhoons, with five having the
potential to be destructive ones. In the Philippine language,
tropical cyclones are generally called bagyo.
Typhoons move east to west across the country, heading north as
they go. Storms most frequently make landfall on the islands
of Eastern Visayas, Bicol region, and northern Luzon whereas the
southern island and region of Mindanao is largely free of
typhoons.

Climate change is likely to worsen the situation with the

extreme weather events including typhoons posing various
risks and threats to the Philippines.
The deadliest overall tropical cyclone to affect the Philippines is
believed to have been the Haiphong typhoon which is estimated
to have killed up to 20,000 people as it passed over the country in
September 1881. In modern meteorological records, the deadliest
storm was Typhoon Yolanda (international name Haiyan), which
became the strongest land-falling tropical cyclone ever recorded
as it crossed the Visayas in central Philippines on November 7–8,
2013.

The wettest known tropical cyclone to impact the archipelago,

Ondoy, was the July 14–18, 1911 cyclone which dropped over
2,210 millimetres (87 in) of rainfall within a 3-day, 15-hour period
in Baguio
The frequency of typhoons in the Philippines
have made the typhoons a significant part of
everyday life in ancient and modern Filipino
culture…
The most active season, since 1945, for tropical cyclone strikes on the
island archipelago (Philippines) was 1993 when nineteen tropical
cyclones moved through the country (though there were 36 storms
that were named by PAGASA).There was only one tropical cyclone
which moved through the Philippines in 1958. The most frequently
impacted areas of the Philippines by tropical cyclones are northern
Luzon and eastern Visayas. A ten-year average of satellite determined
precipitation showed that at least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in
the northern Philippines could be traced to tropical cyclones, while the
southern islands receive less than 10 percent of their annual rainfall
from tropical cyclones
Which month has On a worldwide scale,
the least storms?
And which one
May is the least
has the most active month, while
storms? September is the most
active. In the Northern
Atlantic Ocean, a
distinct hurricane season
occurs from June 1 to
November 30, sharply
peaking from late August
through September; the
season's climatological
peak of activity occurs
around September 10
each season
Cyclones are rare in the Arabian Sea, but the basin can produce
strong tropical cyclones. ... However, storms typically do not reach
a high intensity in the Arabian Sea due to dry air coming from the
desert of the Arabian Peninsula and unfavorable wind shear from
the monsoon.

Tropical basins…
Traditionally, areas of tropical cyclone formation are divided
into seven basins. These include the north Atlantic Ocean, the
eastern and western parts of the northern Pacific Ocean, the
southwestern Pacific, the southwestern and southeastern Indian
Oceans, and the northern Indian Ocean (the Arabian Sea and Bay
of Bengal).
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and
the Pacific (ESCAP) is one of the five regional commissions under
the jurisdiction of the United Nations Economic and Social
Council.
Course of actions to be taken in
case of a storm…
Although it is unlikely to sail into a storm with all the
Navigational Aids and Communications system in place (shore-
based as well as ship-based), shore personnel generally chalk
out an alternate passage plan to avoid such a storm in good
time (in liaison with the company). However, in the event that
the TRS is starting right in the face, it is probably, entirely up to
the mercy of the sea, or maybe, it is not intense enough and can
be handled by the captain’s experience and knowledge. To
avoid storms (TRS), the Officer should gather as much
knowledge about the storm as practically possible. This may
include the following:
 The bearing of the eye (storm centre)
 The path that the storm is following
 When an observer faces the wind, the eye will be 100° to
125° on his right hand side (in the Northern hemisphere)
when the storm is about 200 miles away
 It is assumed generally that the storm is not moving
towards the equator
 A storm moving in an unusual or haphazard path is likely to
move slowly
Avoiding actions when in a Tropical
Revolving Storm
1. Keep at least 50 miles off from the centre of the storm. If
possible, it is best to be at least 200 miles off to avoid any
possibility of danger altogether

2. Make good speed as a vessel speeding in the vicinity of 20

knots, following a course taking her away from the eye, can easily
outrun an approaching Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS). TRS move
rather slow. This ought to be done before the wind increases to
the point that her movement becomes restricted and speeding or
any manoeuver becomes cumbersome.
3. As mentioned earlier, a swift fall in pressure indicates a brewing
TRS. A vessel should continue on her course unless the barometer
reading falls down by 5 mb or, by 3 mb in addition to high force
wind

4. If the vessel is trailing the storm (behind the storm), i.e., in the
navigable semicircle, there should be sufficient time and sea room
to move away from the eye

When in the Southern Hemisphere…

1. In case the wind is backing, the vessel is likely to be in the
dangerous semicircle. The vessel should proceed with maximum
speed keeping the wind 10° to 45°, on the port bow (depending
on the speed). The ship should turn to port as the wind backs.
2. In case the wind direction is steady or backs, such that the
vessel is in the navigable semicircle, the wind should be brought
well on the port quarter and the vessel should proceed with
maximum speed. Turn to starboard as the wind backs.

If the vessel in port and a Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS)

approaches, it is best to put out to sea. Staying put at the berth,
especially with other vessels in proximity can be highly
dangerous. With the best mooring practices put in position, it is
very doubtful that ship might be safe from the effects of the
storm.
Manoeuvering Actions to
Avoid the Storm Centre…
The safest procedure with respect to tropical cyclones is to avoid
them. If action is taken sufficiently early, this is simply a matter of
setting a course that will take the vessel well to one side of the
probable track of the storm, and then continuing to plot the
positions of the storm centre as given in the weather bulletins,
revising the course as needed. However, this is not always
possible. If the ship is found to be within the storm area, the
proper action to take depends in part upon its position relative to
the storm centre and its direction of travel. It is customary to
divide the circular area of the storm into two parts.
In the Northern Hemisphere, that part to the right of the storm
track (facing in the direction toward which the storm is moving) is
called the dangerous semicircle. It is considered dangerous
because…

1. the actual wind speed is greater than that due to the pressure
gradient alone, since it is augmented by the forward motion of the
storm, and
2. the direction of the wind and sea is such as to carry a vessel
into the path of the storm (in the forward part of the semicircle).
A plot of successive positions of the storm centre should indicate
the semicircle in which a vessel is located. However, if this is based
upon weather bulletins, it may not be a reliable guide because of
the lag between the observations upon which the bulletin is based
and the time of reception of the bulletin, with the ever-present
possibility of a change in the direction of the storm. The use of
radar eliminates this lag at short range, but the return may not be
a true indication of the center. Perhaps the most reliable guide is
the wind. Within the cyclonic circulation, a wind shifting to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere indicates the vessel is probably in the dangerous
semicircle.
A steady wind shift opposite to this indicates the vessel is probably
in the less dangerous semicircle.
However, if a vessel is underway, its own motion should be
considered. If it is outrunning the storm or pulling rapidly toward
one side (which is not difficult during the early stages of a storm,
when storm speed is low), the opposite effect occurs. This should
usually be accompanied by a rise in atmospheric pressure, but if
motion of the vessel is nearly along an isobar, this may not be a
reliable indication. If in doubt, the safest action is usually to stop
long enough to define the proper semicircle. The loss in time may
be more than offset by the minimizing of the possibility of taking
the wrong action, increasing the danger to the vessel. If the wind
direction remains steady (for a vessel which is stopped), with
increasing speed and falling barometer, the vessel is in or near
the path of the storm. If it remains steady with decreasing speed
and rising barometer, the vessel is near the storm track, behind
the centre.
The first action to take if the ship is within the cyclonic circulation
is to determine the position of his vessel with respect to the storm
centre. While the vessel can still make considerable way through
the water, a course should be selected to take it as far as possible
from the centre. If the vessel can move faster than the storm, it is
a relatively simple matter to outrun the storm if sea room
permits. But when the storm is faster, the solution is not as
simple. In this case, the vessel, if ahead of the storm, will
approach nearer to the centre. The problem is to select a course
that will produce the greatest possible minimum distance. This is
best determined by means of a relative movement plot, as shown
in the following example solved on a manoeuvering board
A good general rule is to heave to with head to the sea in the
dangerous semicircle, or stern to the sea in the less dangerous
semicircle. This will result in greatest amount of headway away
from the storm centre, and least amount of leeway toward it. If a
vessel handles better with the sea astern or on the quarter, it may
be placed in this position in the less dangerous semicircle or in the
rear half of the dangerous semicircle, but never in the forward half
of the dangerous semicircle. It has been reported that when the
wind reaches hurricane speed and the seas become confused,
some ships ride out the storm best if the engines are stopped, and
the vessel is left to seek its own position, or lie ahull. In this way, it
is said, the ship rides with the storm instead of fighting against it.
Northern
Hemisphere
Right or dangerous
semicircle:
Bring the wind on the
starboard bow (045°
relative), hold course
and make as much
way as possible. If
necessary, heave to
with head to the sea.

Left or less dangerous semicircle:

Bring the wind on the starboard quarter (135° relative), hold
course and make as much way as possible. If necessary, heave to
with stern to the sea.
 Wind at 2 pts on
On storm path, ahead of stbd qtr
center:
Bring the wind 2 points on
the starboard quarter
(about 160° relative), hold

1
course and make as much 2
way as possible. When
well within the less
dangerous semicircle,
maneuver as indicated
above.

On storm track, behind center:

Avoid the center by the best practicable course, keeping in mind
the tendency of tropical cyclones to curve northward and
eastward.
Southern
Hemisphere

Left or dangerous
semicircle: Bring the
wind on the port bow
(315° relative), hold
course and make as
much way as possible.
If necessary, heave to
with head to the sea.

Right or less dangerous semicircle: Bring the wind on the port

quarter (225° relative), hold course and make as much way as
possible. If necessary, heave to with stern to the sea.
On storm path,
ahead of center:
Bring the wind about
200° relative, hold
course and make as
much way as
possible. When well
within the less
dangerous
semicircle, maneuver
Wind at 200 deg
as indicated above. rel. (on stbd qtr.)

On storm track, behind center:

Avoid the center by the best practicable course, keeping in mind the
tendency of tropical cyclones to curve southward and eastward.
Types of Lows
a) Tropical and Extra tropical lows
b) Meteorological Bombs
c) Secondary Low
d) Sting in the Scorpion Tails
e) Upper-level Lows
f) Cut-off Lows
A low is a region where the
atmospheric pressure is lower than
that of surrounding locations. Low-
pressure systems form under areas of
wind divergence that occur in the
upper levels of the atmosphere. The
formation process of a low-pressure
area is known as cyclogenesis.

A low is designated as a tropical depression as soon as a defined low-

pressure circulation exists (rather than just a cluster of thunderstorms)
and as long as sustained wind speeds are under 35 knots. When
sustained winds are 35 knots or higher, it becomes a tropical storm .
That same low becomes a hurricane when sustained winds are 64 knots
or higher over any part of it. In the western North Pacific, tropical storms
are called tropical cyclones; they are also given names.
There are three
major types of lows
(low pressure
systems): tropical
lows, mid-latitude
lows, and cut-off
lows. It is important
to understand the
differences between
them. A tropical low forming in Northwest Australia
(Southern Hemisphere – clockwise rotation)

“Topical lows” are low pressure systems that occur in the tropics.
They have weaker circulation and are the humble beginnings of
tropical cyclones. Despite having lower wind speeds than
typhoons/hurricanes, tropical lows can still pack a punch, bringing
powerful thunderstorms and lots of rain.
Living in the belt of tradewinds, Tropical lows are also known as
tropical depressions, tropical cyclones, hurricanes, and
typhoons. They are seasonal and travel east to west in the trades.

Tropical lows are closely monitored

by weather forecasters. Only some
will become fully fledged tropical
cyclones. So, what causes some to
grow and develop, and others to
peter out?

If viewed on satellite imagery, the storms of a tropical low can be

seen with a range in shape from an indistinct blob to a classic 'spiral-
band' pattern. Their appearance gives an indication of their wind
strength. When the winds around the centre reach gale force (63
km/h or greater) the tropical low has grown into a cyclone, and
is named.
Tropical lows derive
energy from the warmth
of the oceans and the
release of latent heat
energy from the
formation of the clouds.
Cold, dry air can weaken
a tropical low. A
concentration of
thunderstorms over
water temperatures of
80°F (27°C) or warmer is
the first sign
of a tropical low forming. If there is a jet stream or other strong
wind aloft, tropical lows will not form because thunderstorms
need to develop vertically. Jet stream winds or wind shear will tear
them apart.
Thunderstorm, a
violent short-lived
weather disturbance
that is almost always
associated with
lightning, thunder,
dense clouds, heavy
rain or hail, and
strong gusty
winds. Thunderstorm
s arise when layers of
warm, moist air rise
in a large, swift
updraft to cooler
regions of the
atmosphere.
Since the jet stream is usually not present near a tropical low,
the low’s movement can be erratic and less predictable than a
mid-latitude low. A tropical low is much smaller in size than a
mid-latitude low, frequently only 400-500 miles across, though
the biggest ones might be twice that size. The strongest winds
will be found within 25-50 miles of the center. Barometric
pressure gradient is also much less than with a mid-latitude
low.
To have a good chance of developing, a tropical low needs to be
far enough away from the equator, (usually at least 500 km), so
that the Coriolis effect can support its 'spin up'. It is possible for
a cyclone to form on or near the equator, if there is enough
rotation from the wind. However, such systems are rare and
tend to be short-lived.
Tropical lows also need warm sea surface temperatures (at least
26.5 °C), to help maintain its warm core. The warm waters provide
fuel for the tropical low to grow. This differentiates tropical lows
and cyclones from low pressure systems in mid-latitude regions
(including East Coast Lows). Unlike their tropical cousins, mid-
latitude lows have a cold core and are fuelled by temperature
gradients rather than heat.
The most dangerous side of a tropical low is the “right side” in the
northern hemisphere. If the tropical low is moving east to west,
this would be the north side; if it’s moving from south to north, this
would be the east side. Winds are strongest over a much larger
area and the seas are also largest on the “right side.” It is never
advisable to try crossing in front of a tropical low.
Extra Tropical Low…
Extra-tropical Low (or cyclone) forms anywhere within the extra-
tropical regions of the Earth (usually between 30° and 60° latitude
from the equator), either through cyclo-genesis or extra-tropical
transition.
Tropical Low (or cyclone) often transform into extra-tropical cyclones
at the end of their tropical existence, usually between 30° and 40°
latitude. This usually happens when there is sufficient forcing from
upper-level troughs or shortwaves riding the Westerlies. The process of
tropical low changing into extr-tropical low is called Extra-tropical
Transition.
During the process of extra-tropical transition a cyclone (known
across the eastern North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans as the
post-tropical stage), will invariably form or connect with nearby
fronts and/or troughs consistent with a baroclinic system. Due to this,
the size of the system will usually appear to increase, while the core
weakens. However, after transition is complete, the storm may re-
strengthen due to baroclinic energy, depending on the environmental
conditions surrounding the system. The cyclone will also distort in
shape, becoming less symmetric with time.
A Comparison of a Tropical and Extra-tropical Low…

A Tropical Low/Cyclone An Extra-tropical Low

Meteorological Bomb…
A meteorological bomb is a rapidly developing cyclone. It
refers to the unofficial term for when a low pressure deepens
with at least 24 hPa within 24 hours. Such a rapid deepening
of a low can be classified as a meteorological bomb – also
called a weather bomb, bombogenesis, explosive
cyclogenesis, bomb cyclone etc.

Some storm systems can develop rapidly, sometimes over the

span of hours or a day. When this happens, the system can be
very intense and cause a wide variety of impacts. Storms that
intensify very quickly are called "bomb cyclones",
"meteorological bombs", or "bombs".
What causes
meteorological bombs
to develop? To initiate
the development,
there needs to be a
large temperature
gradient (change in
pressure over a finite
distance). A typical
scenario in which this
may occur is when
warm air over the
ocean interacts
with the colder continental air. With strong forcing in place, the air at
the center of the storm rises rapidly, causing a rapid decrease in
pressure.
Development of these systems is
commonly referred to as
"bombogenesis" or "explosive
cyclogenesis" and is characterized by
a 24 millibar drop in pressure over a
24 hour period. While not especially
common, some notable examples of
bombs include the Superstorm of
1993 that brought feet of snow to
the Northeast, Hurricane Sandy in
2012, and Hurricane Irma in 2017. A
low that is not tropical in nature can
also undergo bombogenesis.
Hurricane Irma was considered as a
Met bomb.
 Secondary Low…
A secondary low pressure
system forming on an
extended cold front, where
the thermal contrast across
the front (in the troposphere) is
large, and the upper pattern is
conducive to falling pressure at
the surface.

A Secondary Low often forms (in

65% of the cases) within a Neutral
Occlusion, that is, the Occlusion is
neither warm nor cold.
Pointers for secondary lows…
Secondary Lows develop within the existing circulation of a low
pressure system.
The first pointer is the widening of the isobars, usually near a
cold front or trough. There may be a small wave on the front. A
secondary may also develop near the triple point where the cold
front, warm front and occluded front meet.
The wind will increase on the side away from the parent low, but
will also reduce between the parent low and the new secondary
low.
There can be rapid development of the new low to a lower
central pressure than the parent. This is most likely to happen
when the secondary low is greater than 600 miles from the
parent.
The secondary low will rotate around the parent low.
Sting in the Scorpion Tails
https://youtu.be/wxjLdWeXk8A Sting Jet by MetOffice to post in LMS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwo9cuD
xmVk
mid lat lows american video
A sting jet is a core of strong winds which sometimes forms in
rapidly deepening areas of low pressure (more than 24 mb hPa in
span of 24 hours) and extends towards the ground.*similar to tornadoes
A sting jet is a small area of very intense winds (often 100mph or
more) that can sometimes form in powerful weather
systems. Relative to the size of the storm, the sting jet is narrow,
often 30 miles across, and only lasts 3 to 4 hours. Regardless,
with gusts of wind exceeding 100 mph there is clearly still the
risk of damage.
Warm air rises and cold air sinks; that’s what creates cloud and
rain. It also helps to form areas of low pressure, sometimes
turning them into storms. Areas of low pressure almost always
have weather fronts as part of their structure, unless they’re a
tropical storm. These fronts separate areas of warm and cold air
and it’s their interaction that creates and develops wet and
windy weather.
Close to the fronts there tends to be more focused streams of
warm and cold air that run parallel to them. They are known as
conveyor belts; the warm conveyor rises and the cold conveyor
falls. These wrap around the area of low pressure and help
develop it by feeding warm air and moisture into the system.
The cold conveyor brings its cold air from higher in the atmosphere
and from being in a cold air mass. Sometimes it has help from rain
and snow as they fall into it and evaporate. This change from liquid
to gas requires heat, which is removed from the conveyor, cooling it
further. Now we have even colder air falling along the conveyor,
speeding up as it does so, like a rollercoaster taking the first drop.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lg91eowt
fbw
jet stream by metoffice
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i6nBcDXAQgw
How jet stream affects weather by metoffice
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5IBgGVbh
dZY
troughs and ridges UK

Upper-level Lows…
Upper Level Lows are closed cyclonically circulating eddies in
the middle and upper troposphere. They are sometimes also
called "cold drops", because the air within an Upper Level Low is
colder than in its surroundings.
An upper level low or cold-
core cyclone, is a cyclone aloft
which has an associated cold
pool of air residing at high
altitude within the
Earth's troposphere, without
a frontal structure. It is a low
pressure system that
strengthens with height in
accordance with the thermal
wind relationship.
An upper level low is a region of positive vorticity. This positive
vorticity can be caused by counterclockwise curvature around
the upper level trough and counterclockwise shear associated
with the speed shear of a jet streak. The circulation around
an upper level low can build to the surface over time.
Upper level lows are important to forecasting. Upper level lows
can occur in association with a mid-latitude cyclone or may
begin without the aid of a mid-latitude cyclone. Upper level
lows without the aid of a surface low can develop when air is in
association with an upper level short wave, or in association
with a jet streak.

Upper level low pressure (trough) in association with a mid-

latitude cyclone may be several 100 kilometers displaced from
the surface low toward the west or northwest.
Cut-off Lows…
A closed upper-
level low which has
become completely
displaced (cut off) from
basic westerly current, and
moves independently of
that current. Cut-off lows
may remain nearly
stationary for days, or on
occasion may move
westward opposite to the
prevailing flow aloft (i.e.,
retrogression).