The terrestrial

environment
soil
• The term terrestrial in biology generally used to describe
living organisms that live and grow on land .

• The term environment in biology genereally used to

describee surroundings or conditions in which a person,
animal, or plant lives and operates.
 Soil profile
• Is a vertical cross-section of the soil, made of layers
running parallel to the surface. These layers are
known as soil horizons.

• The soil profile is composed of a series of horizons

or layers of soil stacked one on top of the other.
These layers or horizons are represented by letters
O, A, E, C, B and R
The O-Horizon
• The O horizon is the upper layer of the topsoil which is mainly composed of organic
materials such as dried leaves, grasses, dead leaves, small rocks, twigs, surface
organisms, fallen trees, and other decomposed organic matter. This horizon of soil is
often black brown or dark brown in colour and this is mainly because of the
presence of organic content
The A-Horizon or Topsoil
• This layer is rich in organic material and is known as the humus layer. This layer
consists of both organic matter and other decomposed materials. The topsoil is soft
and porous to hold enough air and water.
• In this layer, the seed germination takes place and new roots are produced which
grows into a new plant. This layer consists of microorganisms such as earthworms,
fungi, bacteria, etc.
The E-Horizon
• This layer is composed of nutrients leached from the O and A horizons. This layer is
more common in forested areas and has lower clay content.
The B-Horizon or Subsoil
• It is the subsurface horizon, present just below the topsoil and above the
bedrock. It is comparatively harder and more compact than topsoil. It contains
less humus, soluble minerals, and organic matter. It is a site of deposition of
certain minerals and metal salts such as iron oxide.
• This layer holds more water than the topsoil and is lighter brown due to the
presence of clay soil. The soil of horizon-A and horizon-B is often mixed while
ploughing the fields.
The C-Horizon or Saprolite
• This layer is devoid of any organic matter and is made up of broken bedrock.
This layer is also known as saprolite. The geological material present in this zone
is cemented.
The R-Horizon
• It is a compacted and cemented layer. Different types of rocks such as granite,
basalt and limestone are found here.
 soil
• Thin layer of the earth's crust made up of a mixture of eroded rock
particles together with organic matter from plant and animal remains
(humus), water and living organism.
• Important part of the terrestrial environment and formed over millions
of years.

Weathering - the process by which rocks are broken down into smaller
particles leading to the formation of soil.

Soil formation occurs by 3 weathering processes: biological process,

chemical process and physical processes.
Physical processes or mechanical
Is the breakdown of rocks into smaller particles or pieces without any change in chemical
composition.
Takes place by the action of water, temperature, ice + abrasion.
Eg:
• Particles of rocks are abrasive especially if they are carried by strong winds which helps them to
wear away other rocks.
• In the beach or river, rocks continually crash into each other, causing small particles to chip off
which eventually leads to large rocks to get smaller and rounded.
• Water collects in cracks in rocks and freezes , which causes expansion of the water as ice is
formed. This eventually leads to bigger cracks, and they eventually fall off.
• Change in temperature of rocks being hot in the day, then cold in the night. Outer layer of the
rock will crumble and fall. This process is known as exfoliation. This is caused by minerals in the
rock expanding and contracting due to temperature changes. Eg deserts
Chemical process
• Is the breakdown of rocks due to chemical reactions.
• Takes place by the action of oxidation, pH changes of rocks, action of carbonic acid, dissolving.
Eg
• Minerals in rocks are oxidised by oxygen in the air into substances that are soluble and
crumble easily.
• Rock minerals dissolve in water and are lost from rocks, creating crevices and holes. Rock
structure becomes weaker and is easily broken down by physical weathering processes.
• Rain is a weak solution of carbonic acid. Formed when carbon dioxide dissolves in water in
the atmosphere. Rain falls on rocks containing insoluble carbonates whereby chemical
reaction occurs forming soluble hydrogencarbonate. This provides temporary hardness to
water.
Biological processes
Occurs from action of microorganisms, plants and animals

Eg
Plant roots growing in rock crevices expands as they grow causing an
increase in pressure which forces the rocks apart.
Decay of dead leaves lead to the formation of organic acids, and these
react with the minerals in rocks.
Earthworms consume soil particles with their food to help grind up food in
their gut. Particles rub against each other while excreting and become
smaller
 Structure of the soil
Tiny particles of rock gives soil its basic structure
but it also contains:

Micro-organisms (eg: bacteria and fungi). these

are called decomposers because they break
down dead organic material in the soil.

Humus, or decaying plants and animals

material, which releases nutrients to soil.

Water is essential for survival.

Air providing organism with oxygen.

Mineral salts

Earthworms and beetles which mix and aerate

the soil.
Types of soil
 Types of soil Sandy Clay Loam

Size of particles High proportion of High proportion of Mixture of large

large particles small particles and small particles

Air spaces Large (good Small (poor Large (good

circulation of air) circulation of air) circulation of air)

Water retention Water passes Water does not Good drainage of

( drainage) through easily pass through (may water without
become drying out too

Comparison waterlogged) quickly or becoming

waterlogged

of soil types Amount of organic

matter
little little Many organisms
and organic matter

fertility Poor (water flowing Fairly good good

through removes
nutrients from soil)

Ease of cultivation Easy (known as light Difficult (known as Easy ( best growing
soil) heavy soil) medium for most
plants)
Classification of soil by size
Type of soil Diameter of particle (mm)

clay < 0.002

loam Between 0.002 and 0.02

sand Between 0.02 and 2.0

gravel > 2.0

 Methods of obtaining information
from soil
• Sedimentation is a method of soil separation in water . When soil is
shaken in water then left to stand, the components will settle
depending on size and mass.

• Water retention of different soils can be compared by timing how long

it takes for the same volume of water to pass through different soils.

• Water content of soil can be found by measuring the mass of a sample

of soil before and after drying it out in an at oven at 100oC. Higher
temperature shouldn’t be used as this will kill humus content.
 Humus
• Is organic matter in the soil which contains dead or decaying animals and
plants or come from animal excretion or fallen leaves.

• Improves the soil texture and increases capacity of soil to hold water.

• As humus decays , nutrients are released into soil to be used by plants.

• Strong heating destroys humus and usually produces an unpleasant odour .

 Importance of soil as a growing
medium
• Plant roots grow down in soil providing anchorage for plant
and prevents them getting blown over by strong winds or
pushed over from passing animals.

• Soil provides plants with water and mineral salt which are
essential for healthy growth. Nutrients absorbed by roots
and distributed throughout the stem and different parts.
 Effect of physical properties on
soil fertility
• Ideal soil drains readily but contain enough smaller
particles to retain sufficient water for plant growth.

• Needs to also have sufficient air to provide oxygen for root

growth and respiration of soil organisms.
 Effects of chemical properties
on soil fertility
• Soil fertility is affected by organic matter

• Organic matter not decomposed is called litter which can be

eaten by detritivores (earthworms and beetles) or broken down
by decomposers (bacteria and fungi).

• By this organic matter releases ammonium, phosphate and

sulphate ions into soil, and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• Any remaining organic matter is called humus and helps to join
mineral particles together to form soil crumbs , which contribute
to aeration and drainage of soil.
 Soil erosion
• Is the loss of topsoil due to the action of wind and water.

• Topsoil is the uppermost layer of soil and most fertile since

it contains decaying organic material and most nutrients.

• Topsoil is less compacted than the lower layers, containing

more air, drains readily and easier to work
 Methods of soil erosion
• water - rain falling on soil or water flowing over soil , loosens soil
particles causing them to be carried away

• Overgrazing - animals eat the ground covering plants leaving the soil
exposed which then leads to easy erosion.

• Deforestation – cutting down of trees leave plants that normally

exposed to rays of the sun and are killed leaving topsoil exposed.

• Wind – once topsoils Is exposed and loose, can be taken away by strong
wind
Types of soil erosion
Type of erosion causes Methods of prevention Farming practices

sheet Rain runs down through Planting trees on hillsides Banks and terrace can be
topsoil which eventually and control grazing of built across hillside to
weakens, and sheet of animals reduce flow of water
topsoil slides down slope down slope
rill Planting crops in rows Do not plant crops in rows Contour ploughing
which allow for flowing reduces flow of water and
water to channel between prevents rill
the rows
gully Water cuts deep channels Reduce overgrazing Contour ploughing
into soil especially in the wet
season
 Farming practices that reduce soil erosion
Farming practice Reason for use

Strip planting Strips of different crops are planted in the same field and harvested at different times so the field
is never exposed to erosion.
Lying fallow Land is left uncultivated, so nutrients are replaced by micro-organisms

Crop rotation One type of crop is alternated with another (especially leguminous plants)after each harvest
which allows nutrients to be replaced in soil
contouring Land is ploughed perpendicular to the slope and crops planted. Flow of water from slope is
reduced, preventing erosion
Terracing Banks built across slope reduce water flow and risk of erosion

Planting methods Hoeing breaks up topsoil and separates soil particles. Makes water easier to pass through soil and
reduce erosion
Greeen fertilisers Planting crops such as leguminous plants whose roots are covered in nodules containing bacteria
which convert nitrogen in air to nitrates, which are used by plants to make proteins. While
growing, fertility of soil increases. Ploughing of plant increases humus content and decomposes
releasing nutrients
Contour farming Strip planting

Contour and
terrace farming