CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Computer system
(Part-I)
2

 A computer is a machine that performs computational tasks

using stored instructions.

 Computer system consists of two parts:
 hardware and
 software parts
 A computer hardware consist of three major parts:
 Central processing unit (CPU)
 Memory (RAM: Random Access Memory)
 Input-output processors (IOP) interface)
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 What are structure The Computer System
3

Abstract view of computer system components

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Computer System Components
4

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory,

I/O devices).
 Operating system – controls and coordinates the use of the

hardware among the various application programs for the

various users.
 Applications programs – define the ways in which the system

resources are used to solve the computing problems of the

users (compilers, database systems, video games, etc.)
 Users- (people, machines, other computers)
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Over views of Computer organization and
architecture
5

Why study computer organization and architecture?

 Design better programs, including system software
such as compilers, operating systems, and device
drivers.
 Optimize program behavior.
 Evaluate (benchmark) computer system performance.
 Understand time, space, and price tradeoffs
 Etc.
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 What is computer Architecture?
6

 The design of the integrated system which provides a

useful tool to the programmer.
 Computer Architecture is concerned with the way
hardware components are connected together to form
a computer system.
 The study of the structure, behavior and design of
computers.
 The art of designing a machine that will be a pleasure to
work with.
 How do I design a computer?
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 What is computer Architecture…?
7
 Computer Architecture = ISA + MO
 ISA( Instruction set Architecture) = attributes of the
computing system as seen by the programmer.
 Data types & data structures
 Instruction set
 Instruction formats
 Modes of addressing (memory addressing),
 Exception handling
 CPU, I/O, memory
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 What is computer Architecture..?
8

 MO (Machine Organization):
 Capabilities & performance characteristics of principal
functional units (e.g., Registers, ALU, logic units,
shifters, etc.)
 Ways in which these components are interconnected
 Information flow between components
 Logic and means by which such information flow is
controlled

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 What is computer Organization..?
9

 The term 'Computer Organization' refers to the

operational units of the computer and their

interconnections.
 CO shows how different parts of a computer system
work in-line with the architectural specification
 How does a computer work?

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Different parts of computer system
10

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Computer Design
11

 Computer design is concerned with the hardware design of the

computer.
 Once the computer specifications are formulated, it is the
task of the designer to develop hardware for the system.
 Computer design is concerned with the determination of what
hardware should be used and, how the parts should be
connected
 This aspect of computer hardware is sometimes referred to
as computer implementation.
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Computer Hardware
12

 CPU
 Memory
 Program memory(ROM)
 Data memory(RAM)
 I/O devices
 Interfaces
 Input devices(keyboard, mouse..)
 Output devices(printer, display…)
*These devices communicate to
each other through a set of
electric wires called bus

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Computer Hardware
13

 A computer system is sometimes divided into:

 Hardware and Software

 The hardware of the computer is usually divided into
three major parts, as shown in the figure
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
 CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 IOP (Input and Output Processor)

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Computer Hardware
14

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
15

 The part of the computer performs the bulk of data

processing operations is called the central processing unit.
 It’s the “brain” of a computer
 It executes programs by:
 Fetching and decoding the next instruction from memory

 Execute it

 The CPU is made up of three major parts:

 Control Unit

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

 Registers (high-speed memory )

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
16
 Register set: Stores intermediate data during the execution of
instructions;
 Fast, small memory for temporary storage during
mathematical operations
 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): Performs the required micro-
operations for executing the instructions;
 Executes arithmetic (addition, multiplication,...) and logical
(AND, OR, NOT...) operations
 Control unit: supervises the transfer of information among the
registers and instructs the ALU as to which operation to
perform by generating control signals.
 Generates a sequence of control signals telling the ALU how
to operate; reads and executes micro programs stored in a
read only memory (ROM).
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Simple Diagram of Computer Organization
17

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 How does the computer run a program?
18

 “The control unit (CU) reads each instruction of a

program from memory (RAM) and places it in a control

register.
 It then interprets the binary code of the instruction

and proceeds to execute it by issuing a sequence of

micro operations; the famous fetch-decode-execute
cycle.”

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Individual Assignment(5%)
19

 Write the history of Computer Architecture and

organization
 Write the evolution computer device
 write the Functional units of digital system
 Write the General System Architecture in computer
architecture

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Part-II

Digital logic and digital systems

By Abdela A. 20 04/15/24
 DIGITAL COMPUTER
21

 Devices capable of solving problems by processing

information in discrete form.

 The word digit implies that the information in the

computer is represented by variables that takes a limited

number of discrete values.
 In the modern world of electronics, the term Digital is

generally associated with a computer because the term

Digital is derived from the way computers perform
operation, by counting digits.
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 DIGITAL COMPUTER…
22

 It operates on data, including magnitudes, letters, and

symbols, that are expressed in binary code(only two
possible states, off and on, usually symbolized by 0 and 1).
 i.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1.
 In practice digital computers function more reliably if only
two states are used.
 Digital computers use the binary number system (two
digit:0 and 1)
 Binary number system: Has two digits: 0 and 1

 0 and 1. A binary digit is called a bit

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 DIGITAL COMPUTER
23

 Digital computers represent information in discrete form,

generally as sequences of 0s and 1s (binary digits, or bits)

 Analog computers use continuous physical magnitudes to

represent quantitative information

 The decimal equivalent of a binary number can be found by

expanding it into a power series with a base of 2

 For example, the binary number 1001011

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Logic Gates
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By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Logic Gates…
25

 Every digital device be it a personal computer, a cellular

telephone, or a network router:
 is based on a set of chips designed to store and process
information.
 Although these chips come in different shapes and forms,
they are all made from the same building blocks: Elementary
logic gates
 The gates can be physically implemented in many different
materials and fabrication technologies, but their logical
behavior is consistent across all computers
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 What Is Logic Gates?
26

 Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital

systems.
 A logic gate is a circuit that switches between precisely

two states (high/1 or low/0)

 A gate is a circuit with one or more input and a single

output.
 The name logic gate is derived from the ability of such devices to
make decisions, in the sense that it produces one output level when
some combinations of input levels are present.
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Logic Gates…
27
 Each one of the basic logic gates is a piece of hardware or an

electronic circuit that can be used to implement some basic

logic expression.
 While laws of Boolean algebra could be used to do manipulation

with binary variables and simplify logic expressions, these are

actually implemented in a digital system with the help of
electronic circuits called logic gates.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Logic Gates…
28

 The manipulation of binary information in a digital

computer is:
 Done by logic circuits called gates
 Gates are blocks of hardware that produce signals of
binary 1 or 0 when input logic requirements are
satisfied.
 Gates refer to the hardware to implement Boolean

operators.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Logic Gates…
29

Inputs & Outputs for Logic Circuits:

Input & Output of logic gates can occur only in two levels.

 HIGH LOW
 True False
 ON OFF
 1 0

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Logic Gate…
30
Logic :
A logic in which the voltage levels represent logic 1 and logic 0.

Level of logic may be Positive or Negative.

A “Positive Logic” is the one which the higher of the two

voltage levels represents the logic 1 and the lower of the two
voltage level represents the logic 0.
A “Negative Logic”is the one which the lower of the two voltage

levels represents the logic 1 and the higher of the two voltage
level represents the logic 0.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Logic gate
31

Logic:-
 Positive Logic

 Logic 0 (LOW)=0V
 Logic 1 (HIGH)=+5V
 Negative Logic

 Logic 0 (LOW)=+5V
 Logic 1 (HIGH)=0V

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Classification of Logic gate
32

 The seven basic logic gates includes: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, and XNOR

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Logic gate
33

 A variety of logic gates are commonly used in digital

computer system.
 This variety of logic gates can be represented by:

 its operation can be described by means of an algebraic

expression
 Each gate has a distinct graphic symbol/ logic Diagram
 The input-output relationship of the binary variables for
each gate can be represented in tabular form which is
called truth table
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Types of logic gates
34

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Types of logic gates
35

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 AND Gate
36

 An AND gate has two or more inputs but only one

output.
 The output assumes the logic 1 state, when both inputs

are at logic 1 state.

 The output assumes the logic 0 state even if one of its

inputs is at logic 0 state.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 AND Gate with three input
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By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 OR gate
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 An OR gate has two or more inputs but only one output.

 The output assumes the logic 1 state, when even if one

of its inputs is in logic 1 state.

 The output assumes the logic 0 state only when both

the inputs are in logic 0 state

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Three Input OR Gate
39

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 NOT Gate (Inverter)
40

 A NOT gate, also called inverter, has only one input and of course

only one output.

 It is a device whose output is always the complement of its input.

 That is, the output of a NOT gate assumes the logic 1 state when its

input is in logic 0 state and vice versa.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
Universal Gates (NAND and NOR Gate
41

 NAND and NOR gates are Universal Gates.

 Both NAND and NOR gates can perform all the three

basic logic functions (AND, OR and NOT).

 Therefore, AOI logic can be converted to NAND logic

or NOR logic

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 NAND Gate
42
 NAND means NOT AND i.e. AND output is inverted
 So NAND gate is a combination of an AND gate and a NOT
gate.
 The output is logic 0 level, only when all the inputs are logic 1
level.
 For any other combination of inputs, the output is a logic 1
level

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 3 - Input NAND Gate
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By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 NOR Gate
44

 NOR means NOT OR i.e. OR output is inverted.

 So NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate and a NOT
gate
 The output is logic 1 level, only when all the inputs are logic
0 level.
 For any other combination of inputs, the output is a logic 0
level.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 3 – Input NOR Gate
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By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Special Purpose Gate – Ex-OR Gate
46
 An Ex-OR gate is two input, one output logic circuit.
 The output assumes the logic 1 state, when one and only one
of its two inputs assumes a logic 1 state.
 Under the conditions when both the inputs assume the logic 0
state or logic 1 state, the output assumes logic 0.
 If input variables are represented by A and B and the output
variable by Y the representation for the output of this gate is
as

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 3 – Input Ex-OR Gate
47

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Special Purpose Gate – Ex-NOR Gate
48

 An Ex-NOR gate is two input, one output logic circuit.

 The output assumes a logic 0 state, when one of the input
assumes a logic 0 state and other a logic 1 state.
 The output assumes a logic 1 state only when both the inputs
assume a logic 0 state or when both the inputs assume a logic
state.
 If input variables are represented by A and B and the output
variable by Y the representation for the output of this gate is
as

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 3 – Input Ex-NOR Gate
49

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 part-III
Boolean Algebra

By Abdela A. 50 04/15/24
 Boolean Algebra
51
 Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and simplify the

digital (Logic) circuit.

 Since it uses only the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1 it is

also called as “Binary Algebra” or “Logical Algebra”.

 Its mathematical tool to express and analyze digital
(logic) circuits
 The rules of Boolean Algebra are different from those

of the conventional algebra.

 It is invented by George Boole in the year 1854
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Boolean Algebra
52

 Boolean algebra deals with Boolean (also called binary) values

that are typically labeled true/false, 1/0, yes/no, on/off, and

so forth.
 A Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for the

manipulation of variables that can have one of two values.

 In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”

 In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,” 1 and 0, or

“high” and “low.”

 Common Boolean operators include: AND, OR and NOT.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Boolean Algebra
53

 Boolean algebra: is an algebra that deals with binary variables

and logic operations operating on those variables.

 The variables are designed by letters such as A, B, x, and y.

 Boolean variable: Takes only two values – either true (1) or

false (0)
 Boolean function: can be expressed algebraically with binary

variables, the Boolean function can be either 1 or 0.

 Boolean function contain variable + operation
 F (x, y, z) = x + y’z…….Boolean Function
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Boolean algebra
54
 Logic diagram: Composed of graphic symbols for logic

gates.
 The relationship between F and x, y and z can be put in

table form.
 This table is called the truth table of F

 The Boolean algebraic functions are mostly expressed

with binary variables, logic operation symbols,

parentheses, and equal sign.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Boolean algebra
55

Truth table:
 Represents relationship between a Boolean function and
its binary variables.
 To represent a function in truth table we need a list of
the 2n combination of the n binary variables
e.g. Boolean Function: F (x, y, z) = x + y’z

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Boolean algebra
56
 Postulates:

 There are only two values: 0 and 1

 Algebra based the set {0,1}
 0 & 1 are called Boolean constants
 There are three basic Boolean operations:

 Binary operations: OR (+) and AND (.)

 Unary operation: NOT (’)

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Boolean Algebra
57

Boolean expressions: are made up of the Boolean

constants 0, 1 and the three operations shown below

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Boolean algebra
58

 A Boolean function can be transformed from an algebraic

expression into a logic diagram composed of AND, OR and

inverter(NOT) gates
 . Example F= x + y’z

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Boolean algebra
59

 A simple circuit sketch that represents inputs and

outputs of Boolean functions

 E.g. F (x, y, z) = x + y’z

Logic diagram
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 BASIC IDENTITIES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
60

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Boolean identities
61

Boolean rule Boolean rule

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Function Minimization using Boolean algebra
62

 Examples 1:
(a) x + xy = x(1+y)=x

(b) x(x + y) = x.x +xy=x+xy=x(1+y)=x

 What did we gain by simplifying the original expression?

 Cost, Latency, etc.

 Example 2: Simplify the following expression and draw its

original and simplified expression logic gates

F= ABC+ ABC’ +A’C

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Function Minimization using Boolean algebra
63

 F= ABC+ ABC’ +A’C

=AB(C + C’) + A’C =>Remember i.e C+C’ = 1
=AB + A’C

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Minimization
64

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Minimization
65

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 CHAPTER TWO

DIGITAL CIRCUITS

By Abdela A. 66 04/15/24
 Digital circuit
67

COMBINATIONAL AND SEQUENTIAL CIRCUIT

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Introduction
68

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Combinational circuit
69

 Combinational Logic Circuits are memory less digital logic

circuits whose output at any instant in time depends only on

the combination of its inputs.
 Is a connected arrangement of logic gates (AND, OR, NOT,

NAND etc.) with a set of inputs and outputs

 The combinational circuits are employed in digital computer

for generating binary control decisions and for providing

digital components required for data processing.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Block diagram of combinational circuit
70
 Logic circuits for digital systems may be combinational
or sequential.
 The basic components of a combinational circuit are:
input variables, logic gates, and output variables

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Combinational circuit
71

 The combinational circuit goes with the characteristics of:

 At any instant of time, the output is based only on the

levels of current input terminals and not on the past state
inputs.
 These circuits do not need any kind of memory states or
clock, so the past inputs show no influence on the current
state of the circuit.
A combinational circuit can intake ‘n’ number of inputs and
delivers only one output.
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
Representation of Combinational Logic Circuits
72

 Logic gates – These are the basic building blocks in the

development of combinational logic circuits. NAND, NR,

NOT, NOR, OR, AND are all logic gates.
 Boolean algebra – This representation stipulates the

association that is between Boolean variables and is used

to design digital circuitry through logic gates.
 Truth table This method computes the operational values

of logical expressions for every combination of values

taken by their logical variables
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 All of the three together
73

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Classification of Combinational Logic
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By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Arithmetic and Logic Function
75

Adder

 To demonstrate the design of the combinational

circuits, we represent two examples of simple
arithmetic circuits.
 There are two types of adder:
 Half Adder
 Full Adder

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Arithmetic and Logic Function
76

Half Adder
 The most basic digital arithmetic circuit is the addition
of two binary digits.
 A combinational circuit that performs the arithmetic
addition of two bits is called a Half-adder
 The input variables of half-adder are called the augends
and addend bits
 The output variables sum and carry
 A Half-adder circuit needs two binary inputs and two
binary outputs

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Half adder
77

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Logic diagram
78

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Full Adder
79

 A full adder is a combinational circuit that forms the arithmetic

sum of three input bits.
 It consists of three inputs and two outputs

 Two outputs are necessary because the arithmetic sum of three

binary digits ranges from in values from 0 to 3 and binary 2 or 3

needs two digits.
 Two of the input variables represent the two significant bits to be

added
 The third input represent the carry from the previous lower

significant position
By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Full adder
80

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Encoder
81

 Encoder is a combinational circuit which is designed to

perform the inverse operation of decoder.

 An encoder has ‘n’ number of input lines and ‘m’

number of output lines.

 An encoder produces an m bit binary code corresponding

to the digital input number.

 The encoder accepts an n input digital word and converts

it into m bit another digital word

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Encoder
82
 An encoder has 2n (or less) input lines and n output
lines
 2n input, n output
 m inputs, n output (e.g. 4 × 2 enc,8 × 3 enc,16 × 4
enc etc.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Types of Encoders
83

 Priority Encoder

 Decimal to BCD Encoder

 Octal to BCD Encoder

 Hexadecimal to Binary Encoder

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Priority Encoder
84

 This is a special type of encoder.

 Priorities are given to the input lines.
 If two or more input lines are “1” at the same time, then
the input line with highest priority will be considered

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Priority Encoder 8:3
85

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Decoder
86

 Decoder is a combinational circuit which is designed

to perform the inverse operation of encoder.

 An decoder has ‘n’ number of input lines and

maximum ‘2n’(two power of n) number of output

lines.
 Decoder is identical to a demultiplexer without data

input.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Decoder
87

 A combinational circuit that converts binary

information from the n coded inputs to a
maximum of 2n unique outputs
 A decoder converses an n-bit input code to an m-bit output
code
 n  m  2n
 each valid input code word produces a unique output code
Typical n-to-2n decoder
 n inputs, m output (e.g. 2 × 4 dec, 3 × 8 dec, 4 × 16 dec

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 Decoder
88

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Types of Decoder
89

 2 to 4 line Decoder
 3 to 8 line Decoder
 BCD to 7 Segment Decoder

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 2 to 4 Line Decoder
90

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 2 to 4 Line Decoder(logical circuit)
91

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 3 to 8 Line Decoder
92

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 3 to 8 Line Decoder
93

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Comparison between Encoder & Decoder
94

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Multiplexers
95
 Multiplexer is a circuit which has a number of inputs
but only one output.
 Multiplexer is a circuit which transmits large number
of information signals over a single line.
Multiplexer is also known as “Data Selector” or MUX.
 A combinational circuit that receives binary
information from one of 2n input data lines and directs
it to a single output line
 Has a multiple inputs(sources) and a single
output(destination )

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 Necessity of Multiplexers
96

 In most of the electronic systems, the digital data is

available on more than one lines.
 It is necessary to route this data over a single line.
 Under such circumstances we require a circuit which
select one of the many inputs at a time.
 This circuit is nothing but a multiplexer.
 Which has many inputs, one output and some select
lines.
 Multiplexer improves the reliability of the digital
system because it reduces the number of external
wired connections

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 Advantages of Multiplexers
97

 It reduces the number of wires.

 So it reduces the circuit complexity and cost.

 We can implement many combinational circuits using Mux.

 It simplifies the logic design.

 It does not need the k-map and simplification.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Typical Application of a MUX
98

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Applications of MUX
99

Communication system – Communication system is a set of

system that enable communication like transmission system,
relay and tributary station, and communication network.
Multiplexer allow the process of transmitting different type of
data such as audio, video at the same time using a single
transmission line
Telephone network – In telephone network, multiple audio
signals are integrated on a single line for transmission with the
help of multiplexers
Computer memory - Multiplexers are used to implement huge
amount of memory into the computer, at the same time reduces
the number of copper lines required to connect the memory to
other parts of the computer circuit
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 Applications of MUX
100

Transmission from the computer system of a satellite

Multiplexer can be used for the transmission of data signals
from the computer system of a satellite or spacecraft to the
ground system using the GPS (Global Positioning System)
satellites
It is used as a data selector to select one out of many data
inputs.
It is used for simplification of logic design.
It is used in data acquisition system.
In designing the combinational circuits.
In D to A converters.
To minimize the number of connections

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 Block diagram of multiplexers
101

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Types of multiplexers
102

2:1 Multiplexer
4:1 Multiplexer
8:1 Multiplexer
16:1 Multiplexer
32:1 Multiplexer
64:1 Multiplexer
and so on…………

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 2:1 Multiplexer
103

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Realization of 2:1 Mux using gates
104

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 4:1 Multiplexer
105

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Realization of 4:1 Mux using gates
106

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 8:1 Multiplexer
107

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 16:1 Multiplexer
108

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Truth table
109

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 De-multiplexer
110

A de-multiplexer performs the reverse operation of a

multiplexer i.e. it receives one input and distributes
it over several outputs.
At a time only one output line is selected by the
select lines and the input is transmitted to the
selected output line.
It has only one input line, n number of output lines
and m number of select lines.
A DEMUX is a digital switch with a single
input(source) and a multiple outputs

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 Démultiplexeur (DEMUX
111
 The select lines determine which output the input is connected to
1 input to 2n outputs
(e.g. 1 × 2 DEMUX, 1 X 4 DEMUX, 1 x 8 DEMUX etc.)

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 Types of De-multiplexers
112

1:2 De-multiplexer
1:4 De-multiplexer
1:8 De-multiplexer
1:16 De-multiplexer
1:32 De-multiplexer
1:64 De-multiplexer
and so on…………

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 1: 2 De-multiplexer
113

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 1:2 De-mux using basic gates
114

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 1: 4 De-multiplexer
115

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 1:4 De-mux using basic gates
116

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Typical Application of a DEMUX
117

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Sequential circuits (SC)

By Abdela A. 118 04/15/24

 INTRODUCTION
119

The combinational circuit does not use any memory.

Hence the previous state of input does not have any
effect on the present state of the circuit.
But sequential circuit has memory so output can
vary based on input.
This type of circuits uses previous input, output,
clock and a memory element.

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 Introduction
120

Combinational circuit produces an output based on

input variable only, but Sequential circuit produces
an output based on current input and previous input
variables.
That means sequential circuits include memory
elements which are capable of storing binary
information.
That binary information defines the state of the
sequential circuit at that time

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 Introduction
121

A sequential circuit is a logical circuit, where the

output depends on the present value of the input
signal as well as the sequence of past inputs.
 While a combinational circuit is a function of present
input only.
 A sequential circuit is a combination of combinational
circuit and a storage element.
 the sequential circuits use current input variables and
previous input variables which are stored and provides
the data to the circuit on the next clock cycle.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Block diagram of sequential circuit
122

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Combinational Circuits Vs Sequential
Circuits
123

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Combinational Circuits Vs Sequential Circuits
Combinational Circuits Sequential Circuits
124
In combinational circuits, the In sequential circuits, the
output variables at any instant output variables at any
of time are dependent only on instant of time are
the present input variables. dependent not only on the
Memory unit is not required
present input variables but
in combinational circuits also past output variables
Implemented in: Half adder
Memory unit is required to
circuit, full adder circuit,
store the past history
multiplexers, demultiplexers,
decoders and encoders. Implemented in: RAM,
Registers, counters and
other state retaining
machines.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Combinational Circuits Vs Sequential Circuits
125
Combinational Circuits Sequential Circuits
Combinational circuits Sequential circuits are
are faster because the slower than combinational
delay between the input circuits.
and output is due to Sequential circuits are
propagation delay of gates comparatively harder to
only. design.
Combinational circuits In a sequential circuit
are easy to design. the outputs are connected
There are no feedbacks to it as a feedback path.
involved.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Combinational Circuits Vs Sequential Circuits
126

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Combinational Circuits Vs Sequential Circuits
127

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Application of sequential circuit
128
The extensive applications of sequential logic circuits
are:
 Shift registers

 Flip flops

 Analog to digital and digital to analog converters

 Counters

 Clocks

 Latch

 Etc.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Classification of Sequential Circuits
129
Based on the clock signal input, the sequential
circuits are classified into two types.
 Synchronous sequential circuit
 Asynchronous sequential circuit

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 Synchronous sequential circuit

130

These circuit uses clock signal and level inputs (or

pulsed) (with restrictions on pulse width and circuit
propagation).
The output pulse is the same duration as the clock
pulse for the clocked sequential circuits.
Since they wait for the next clock pulse to arrive to
perform the next operation, so these circuits are
bit slower compared to asynchronous.
Level output changes state at the start of an input
pulse and remains in that until the next input or clock
pulse.
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 Synchronous sequential circuit

131

Using clock signal, state changes will occur across all

storage elements.
 These circuits are bit slower compared to
asynchronous because they wait for the next clock
pulse to arrive to perform the next operation.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Its types
132
 Clocked Sequential Circuit
 UnClocked Sequential Circuit

 The Synchronous sequential circuits that use clock

pulses in their inputs are called clocked-sequential

circuits.
 They are very stable.

 The sequential circuits that change their state using

the pulse and these are called pulsed or un-clocked

sequential circuits.
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 Clocked Sequential Circuit

133

The clocked sequential circuits have flip-flops or

gated latches for its memory elements.
There is a periodic clock connected to the clock
inputs of all the memory elements of the circuit to
synchronize all the internal changes of state.
Hence the operation of the circuit is controlled and
synchronized by the periodic pulse of the clock.


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 UnClocked Sequential Circuit

134

In an unclocked sequential circuit requires two

consecutive transitions between 0 and 1 to alternate
the state of the circuit.
An unclocked mode circuit is designed to respond to
pulses of certain durations which do not affect the
circuit’s behavior.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Circuits??

135

The synchronous logic circuit is very simple.

The logic gates which perform the operations on the
data, require a finite amount of time to respond to
the changes in the input.
Used in the design of MOORE-MEALY state
management machines.
They are used in synchronous counters, flip flops etc.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Asynchronous Circuits

136

An asynchronous circuit does not have a clock signal

to synchronize its internal changes of the state.
Hence the state change occurs in direct response to
changes that occur in primary input lines.
These circuit do not use a clock signal but uses the
pulses of the inputs.
These circuits are faster than synchronous sequential
circuits because there is clock pulse and change their
state immediately when there is a change in the
input signal.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Asynchronous Circuits
137

We use asynchronous sequential circuits when speed

of operation is important and independent of
internal clock pulse
But these circuits are more difficult to design and
their output is uncertain.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Circuits?

138

These are used when speed of operation is

important.
As they are independent of internal clock pulse, they
are operate quickly. so they are used in Quick
response circuits.
Used in the communication between two units
having their own independent clocks.
Used when we require the better external input
handling.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
Synchronous Sequential Circuits Vs Asynchronous
Sequential Circuits
139
 Synchronous Seq Circuits  Asynchronous Seq
 In Synchronous circuits, Circuits
memory elements are  In Asynchronous
clocked FFs. circuits, memory
 In Synchronous circuits, the elements are either
change in input signals can unclocked FFs or time
affect memory elements delay elements.
upon activation of clock  In Asynchronous
signals. circuits, the change in
input signals can affect
memory elements at any
instant of time

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Synchronous Sequential Circuits Vs
Asynchronous Sequential Circuits
140

 Synchronous Seq  Asynchronous Seq Circuits

Circuits  Because of the absence of

 The maximum operating the clock, asynchronous

speed of the clock circuits can operate
depends on time delays faster than synchronous
involved circuits.
 Easier to design  More difficult to design

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Flip flop

By Abdela A. 141 04/15/24

 Flip Flop
142

 Flip-flops are the building blocks of the digital circuits.

 Their primary function is to store the binary bits and to

perform decision making operations.

 Flip flop is a sequential circuit which generally samples

its inputs and changes its outputs only at particular

instants of time and not continuously.
 Flip flop is said to be edge sensitive or edge triggered

rather than being level triggered like latches.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 flip-flop
143

 A flip-flop is a bi-stable device, with inputs, that remains in

a given state as long as power is applied and until input

signals are applied to cause its output to change.
 There are four basic different types of flip-flops:

 SR Flip Flop

 D Flip Flop

 JK Flip Flop

 T Flip Flop

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 SR Flip Flop
144

 SR flip-flop is a flip-flop that is either set or reset.

 There is no third state.
 The SET-RESET flip flop is designed with the help of
two NOR gates and also two NAND gates.
 These flip flops are also called S-R Lat
 SR flip-flop operates with only positive clock transitions
or negative clock transitions.
 Whereas, SR latch operates with enable signal.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 SR Flip Flop
145

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 SR Flip Flop
146

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Delay Flip Flop / D Flip Flop
147

 D flip flop is the combination of a simple SR flip flop with a NAND

inverter which is connected in between the S and R inputs.

 D flip flop has one input and the input information appears at the

output after some delay.

 So, this delay names this flip flop as Delay flip flop. Here, in the

conditions of S = R = 0 or S = R = 1, then the input condition will not

appear
 D flip-flop operates with only positive clock transitions or negative

clock transitions.
 Whereas, D latch operates with enable signal.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Delay Flip Flop / D Flip Flop
148
D Flip Flop

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Delay Flip Flop / D Flip Flop
149

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 JK Flip Flop
150

 A JK-FF is a simplification of the SR-flip flop. The

inputs of the J and K flip flops behave like the inputs S

& R.
 When input 1 is applied to both the inputs J and K, then

the FF switches to its complement state.

 The JK flip-flop is similar to SR flip-flop with the

difference that all the four states are defined and

there is no indeterminate state

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 JK Flip Flop
151

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Toggle Flip Flop / T Flip Flop
152

 Toggle flip flop is basically a JK flip flop with J and K

terminals permanently connected together.

 It has only input denoted by T as shown in the Symbol

Diagram.
 The symbol for positive edge triggered T flip flop is

shown in the Block Diagram.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Toggle Flip Flop / T Flip Flop
153

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Applications of Flip Flops
154

 Elimination of Keyboard Debounce

 As a memory element
 In various types of registers
 As delay element
 Parallel Data storage
 Serial Data Storage
 Serial to Parallel Conversion
 Parallel to Serial Conversion
 Frequency Division

By Abdela A. 04/15/24
 Assignment(10%)
155

 Subtractor

 Compactor

 Counter

 Register

 Latch

 Etc.

By Abdela A. 04/15/24