MACHINES

POWERPOINT SLIDESHOW
Grade 8 Science

MECHANICAL
SYSTEMS

Supporting Science Textbook Content while enriching the Learning Process in Junior High/Middle School
MACHINES
Concept Map

Shows the concepts

covered
within the framework
of this unit

Mechanical
Systems

Grade 8
MACHINES
Outline of Key Concepts
Slides Key Concept
4-5 Early Machines
6-9 Simple Machines
10 Complex Machines - Systems
11 - 12 Complex Machines - Subsystems
13 Linkages and Transmissions
14 - 15 Gears
16 - 18 Mechanical Advantage
19 Speed Ratio
20 - 21 Efficiency
22 - 24 Work
25 - 31 Hydraulics
32 - 33 Pneumatics
34 Hydraulics & Pneumatics (Body)
35 - 44 Evaluating Mechanical Devices
MACHINES - Early Machines

A machine helps us do work. Machines help people use energy more efficiently. The
earliest machines were simple devices to make work easier; like moving a large rock or
moving a load up an incline, splitting wood or lifting materials up to a working area
above the ground. These simple machines depended on people or animals as their
source of energy. Machines were also built to satisfy basic human needs, such as
getting water. Three devices used to get water in earlier times included:

Sakia (Persian wheel) Roman Aqueduct Archimedes Screw

Many of the machines that we take for granted were

either discovered or refined during the medieval ages.
The wheelbarrow, spectacles, the flying buttress, and the
use of water power to run hammers are just a few.
Castles were stormed using various machines including
the ‘trebuchet’,
‘trebuchet which threw heavy stones a great
distance over, or into the walls of the castle.
MACHINES - Early Machines

As time passed, people expected more and

more difficult tasks to be completed by machines.
Machines became more complex.
Power sources had to be developed to run
these complicated machines.
Over the last two centuries - coal, oil and
electricity powered complicated machines
were developed to do work in large factories.

The industrial revolution used these large complicated machines to mass-produce

goods for use by consumers.

The steam engine moved these goods across countries

in a very short time, giving people more and better
access to food, clothing, tools and raw materials than
previously. The standard of living had improved. The
continual development of new technologies has lead to
our virtual dependence on machines.
MACHINES - Simple Machines

A simple machine is a tool or device made up of one basic machine.

There are 6 types of basic machines.

Lever – is a rigid bar or plank that can rotate around a fixed point called a pivot, or
fulcrum. Levers are used to reduce the force need to do a particular task. You can
move a very large load, but you must move a greater distance than the load moves.

There are 3 classes of levers.

levers

(a prybar can be all 3 classes of lever, depending on how it is used.)

A winch consists of a small cylinder that has a crank or handle.

The axle of the winch acts like the fulcrum, the handle is the effort
arm. By exerting a force on the handle to turn the wheel the cable
is retracting the load. Because the handle is longer than the radius
of the wheel, the effort force is smaller than the load – making it
act like a small lever over and over again.
MACHINES - Simple Machines

Inclined plane or ramp makes it easier to move a load higher than it is, but it has to
be moved over a much longer distance. An inclined plane makes it possible to lift
heavy objects using a smaller force. (examples: loading ramp, wheelchair access ramp)

Wedge is similar in shape to an inclined plane, but is used in a different way

(and can only be used in one direction). It is forced into an object to split it
apart. The wedge increases the force applied to the object, but it moves a
greater distance into the object than it splits apart.
(examples: axe blade, a knife)
MACHINES - Simple Machines

A Screw is a cylinder with a groove cut in a spiral on the outside.

(It is actually an inclined plane that winds around itself). It helps
you increase the force you use. It can be used to convert rotational
(turning) motion to linear motion (movement in a straight line).
It moves objects in a straight line very slowly.
(examples include: jar lids, light bulbs, and spiral staircases)

A Pulley consists of a wire, rope, or cable moving on a grooved wheel. One or more
combinations of wheels and ropes can be fixed in place or moveable. Pulleys help you
lift larger loads.
A system of fixed and moveable pulleys that
work together is called a block and tackle.
tackle
MACHINES - Simple Machines

The Wheel and Axle is a combination of two wheels of different diameters that turn
together - a lever that rotates in a circle around a center
point or fulcrum. A longer motion on the wheel
produces a more powerful motion on the axle.

They can be used to increase the size of the force

(steering wheel in a car) or, the speed (bicycle wheels).

Simple machines can ...

MACHINES - Complex Machines - Systems

Several simple machines all working together in a system are called complex machines.
machines

A system is a group of parts that work together to perform a function.

The bicycle is a good example of a complex machine because it is a system for moving a
person from one place to another.
MACHINES - Complex Machines - Subsystems

Within the bicycle are groups of parts that perform specific functions, such as braking,
or steering. These groups of parts are called subsystems.
subsystems Each subsystem in a
complex machine contains a simple machine and usually has just one function.

The subsystems in a mechanical device that produce motion, such as in a bicycle, play
a role in how energy is transferred within the system. The subsystems are called
linkages and transmissions.
transmissions
MACHINES - Complex Machines - Subsystems

The different subsystems in a mechanical device can produce a force

advantage, such as the disc brakes in a car.

The brake fluid transfers the pressure from the brake pedal to the brake pads
and the disc, which produces enough force to stop the car.
MACHINES - Linkage and Transmissions

The linkage is the part of the subsystem that transfers your energy from the pedals to
the back wheel. In the bicycle, the chain is the linkage.

In a car, the fan belt is the linkage from the engine to the cooling fan – to prevent the
engine from overheating. Chains or belts form a direct link between two wheels – one
that drives the motion and the other will follow in the same direction.

Machines that are more complex than a bicycle move much larger loads.
A special type of linkage is needed.

It is called a transmission.
transmission

It transfers energy from the engine to the wheels.

A transmission contains a number of different gears.

This enables the operator to move the object slowly with a large force, or quickly with a
smaller force.
MACHINES - Gears

Gears are essential components of most mechanical systems. They consist of a pair of
wheels that have teeth that interlink. When they rotate together, one gearwheel
transfers turning motion and force to the other.

Gears transfer energy in a mechanical system. Gear wheels – which are wheels with
precisely manufactured, identical teeth around its edge - work together in gear trains of
two or more wheels, transferring rotary motion and force, from one part of a complex
machine to another part.

Gears can be used Gears can be used to increase

to change the direction of motion or decrease force or speed
in a mechanical device,
such as in an eggbeater.
MACHINES - Gears

A smaller gear (Y) is called a pinion.

pinion
The gear that supplies the energy is called the driving gear (X).
The gear to which the force is directed is called the driven gear (Y).

A large gear (X) driving a smaller gear (Y)

decreases torque and increases speed in the driven gear.
Gears such as these are called multiplying gears.
gears

A small gear (Y) driving a larger gear (X) increases torque

and reduces speed in the driven gear.
Gears like these are called reducing gears.
gears
When the driving gear has fewer teeth than the driven gear, the driven gear then rotates
more slowly than the driving gear. A car or bicycle in low gear uses reducing gears.

When the driving and the driven gears are the same size they are known as
parallel gears.
gears
MACHINES - Mechanical Advantage

Machines help people do things that they normally couldn’t do on their own.

Mechanical Advantage
A machine makes work easier for you by increasing the amount of force that you exert on
an object. This produces a mechanical advantage, which is the amount of force that is
multiplied by the machine. The force applied to the machine (by you) is the input force.
force
The force that is applied to the object (by the machine) is the output force.
force

Calculating Mechanical Advantage

The mechanical advantage of a machine is the output force divided by the input force.

MA = Output Force
Input Force
The mechanical advantage is the force ratio of a machine.

MA = F out
F in
F = Force is measured in Newtons ( N )

The more a machine multiplies the force, the greater is the mechanical advantage of the machine.
MACHINES - Mechanical Advantage - Pulleys

A Pulley system consists of one or more combinations of wheels and ropes,

which can be fixed in place or movable. Pulleys help you lift larger loads. To
calculate the MA of a pulley, count the number of ropes/cables supporting the
load.
load
MACHINES - Mechanical Advantage - Pulleys

The Block and Tackle pulley was probably invented by Archimedes.

A Block is a set of pulleys mounted on a single axle. When rope or cable is
run through a block or a series of blocks the whole assembly is called a
Tackle. It usually is a compound machine.
The most common arrangement for a block and tackle
is to have a fixed block and another block that is
moveable, attached to the load. The mechanical
advantage is equal to the number of supporting ropes.

Although used in many situations,

they are common on boats and
loading docks, where the task (of
moving heavy loads) must be
performed manually.
MACHINES - Mechanical Advantage

Mechanical Advantage Less Than 1 - In the case of machines where the mechanical
advantage is greater than 1 the machine is multiplying the input force to create a larger
output force. If a machine has a mechanical advantage that is less than 1, 1 it is useful for
tasks that don’t require a large output force. A bicycle is a machine with a mechanical
advantage of less than 1. Even though it has a mechanical advantage of less than 1, the
output force causes the bicycle to move faster than the rider could walk, so it is a very
useful machine.

Comparing Real Mechanical Advantage With Speed Ratio

When people calculate mechanical advantage and speed ratio they may find that they are
the same. In real situations however, when they are calculated, they can be very
different. This is because of friction.

Friction - The difference between the calculated value and the real (actual) value of
mechanical advantage is friction, which is a force that opposes motion.
motion Friction is caused
by the roughness of materials. Because friction is a force in any device, additional force
must be applied to overcome the force of friction. The mechanical advantage of the
device will be less because of this added force that must be overcome. The speed ratio
will not be affected. In fact, the speed ratio represents the ideal mechanical advantage of
a machine – as if friction didn’t exist. Friction in a system also causes heat, which can
cause additional concerns.
MACHINES - Speed Ratio

Speed Ratio
Speed measures the distance an object travels in a given amount of time. The measure
of how a machine affects speed is called the speed ratio. It is calculated by dividing the
input distance by the output distance.

SR = Input distance
Output distance

SR = d input
d output
d = distance ( m )
Using the formula provided, you can calculate the speed ratio of any device.

Less Force But Greater Distance

You do not get something for nothing when using a machine.
The advantage to gaining force is offset by the disadvantage of losing distance.
distance An
inclined plane makes it possible to lift heavy objects using a smaller force (examples:
loading ramp, wheelchair access ramp), but you have to move the object over a much
longer distance.
MACHINES - Efficiency

Efficiency
Efficiency is a measure of how well a machine or a device uses energy. The more energy
that is lost, the less efficient a machine is. Efficiency is represent in %.

Efficiency = Mechanical Advantage X 100

Speed Ratio

In complex machines, there are many subsystems that are affected by friction and other
factors. Because of this, most complex machines are not very efficient.

NO MACHINE CAN BE 100% EFFICIENT !!!!

The higher the efficiency, the better the machine is transferring energy. The reason that
machines are never 100% efficient is because most of the energy that is lost by a
machine is due to friction.

So how can a machine be designed to be more efficient than it already is?

MACHINES - Efficiency

Boosting Efficiency
Since some of the effort force put into a machine is used to overcome the frictional force
of the machine, there are ways to boost the efficiency of a machine. Lubricants,
reducing the surface area interaction where parts rub together and good maintenance
of the machine will help to reduce friction and increase efficiency.

Useful Friction
There are reasons why we need friction in a machine for it to perform properly. Slipping
and sliding would occur and proper gripping would be impossible without friction.
There are many places where friction is useful, including:

Bicycle tires - create friction with the road surface to give you grip

Baseball – rosin is used to form a stronger grip with the bat

Gymnasts – also use rosin to provide grip on

slippery metal surfaces (like rings or bars)

Curlers – sweep the ice in front of the rock to decrease friction

with the ice surface. Sweeping momentarily warms the ice to
create a thin film of water under the stone, that acts as a lubricant.
MACHINES - Work

Scientifically, work is done when a force acts on an object to make that object move.
In order to say that work is being done, there must be movement.
If there is no movement, no matter how much force is used, no work is done.

For example; a worker uses force to move a large carton up a ramp. Energy (pushing) is transferred
to the carton from the worker. Thus, we say that the worker did work on the carton as long as the
carton moved up the ramp as a result of the worker’s pushing action (force).

Calculating Work
The amount of work is calculated by multiplying the force times the distance the object
moves. The formula looks like this:
W=Fxd
Force is measured in Newtons and distance is measured in meters.
meters
The resulting work unit is called a joule,
joule named after the English scientist James Joule.
Joule
MACHINES - Work

Energy and Work

Energy and work are closely related, because without energy there would be no work.
Work is done when there is a transfer of energy and movement occurs. Energy provides
the force needed to make an object move.

Energy can be in the form of human energy

(muscle power – chemical reactions in the body
producing energy).

Or, it can be in the form of another energy

source, such as gasoline (for a car).

A machine transfers energy from its source to the object, causing the object to move.
There is a very complicated chain of events that make a car move - beginning with it
being fueled up with gasoline - all the way through its many subsystems (each doing
work) - to eventually the tires rotating to make the car move forward or backward.
MACHINES - Work

Work and Machines

There are different types of simple machines that can help us do work. The work done
with a machine is the same as the work done without it. This can be shown by calculating
work input and work output.

Work input is the work needed to use,

or operate the machine

Work output is the work done

by the machine.

Work and Friction

Friction is the reason that work input does not equal work output in real situations.
Friction affects the machine’s efficiency.

Efficiency can be calculated

using work input and work output.
MACHINES - Hydraulics

Hydraulic systems use the force of a liquid in a confined space.

Hydraulic systems apply two essential characteristic of fluids – their incompressibility and
their ability to transmit pressure.

Most machines that move very large, very heavy objects use a hydraulic system that
applies force to levers, gears or pulleys. A hydraulic system uses a liquid under pressure
to move loads. It is able to increase the mechanical advantage of the levers in the
machine.

Modern construction projects use hydraulic equipment because the work can be done
quicker and safer. There are many practical applications of hydraulic systems that
perform tasks, which makes work much easier.

A hydraulic lift is used to move

a car above the ground, so a
mechanic can work underneath it.
MACHINES - Hydraulics

Pressure in Fluids
Pressure is a measure of the amount of force applied to a given area.

p=F/A
p is pressure F is Force A is Area

The unit of measurement for pressure is a pascal (Pa), named after Blaise Pascal who
did important research on fluids.

1 Pascal
Pa is equal to the force of 1 Newton over an area of 1 m2

Pascal discovered that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all
directions throughout the fluid. This is known as Pascal’s Law and it makes hydraulic
(liquid) and pneumatic (air) systems possible.

He was the first to notice that the shape of the container

had no effect on the pressure at any given depth as illustrated here.
MACHINES - Hydraulics

A Piston Creates Pressure

In hydraulic systems, the pressure is created using a piston. Pistons can be different sizes
and hydraulic devices use pistons that are different sizes attached to each other with a
flexible pipe. The Input piston is used to apply force to the fluid, which creates pressure
in the fluid. The fluid transfers this pressure to the output piston.
piston This pressure exerts a
force on the output piston and the result is a mechanical advantage that makes the
hydraulic system very useful.

The mechanical advantage in a hydraulic system comes from the fluid pressure in the
system. Calculating the input force and the output force will give you the Mechanical
advantage of the system.

MA = Output force / Input force

MA = Fo X do / Fi X di
MA = 10 / 1 = 10

Mechanical advantages in hydraulic systems This hydraulic system has

are usually quite high, showing how useful they are. a mechanical advantage of 10
MACHINES - Hydraulics

Pressure and Mechanical Advantage

The reason for the large mechanical advantage in a hydraulic system is the ability of the
fluid to transmit pressure equally. It allows you to use a small force on the small piston to
produce a larger force on the large piston.

p=F/A

From Pascal’s law, we know that the pressure the small piston creates is the same
everywhere in the fluid. So the large piston has a larger area and is able to multiply the
pressure because of its larger area. The force and area at each piston act as ratios that
have to be equal.

By solving this ratio you will find that the forces created within a hydraulic system provides
very large mechanical advantages - making them useful in many applications.
MACHINES - Hydraulics

Larger Force – Greater Distance To Move

Mechanical advantage in hydraulic systems has a cost. That cost is the increased distance
the smaller force must go through to make the large force move a small distance.

To increase the force on the output piston ,

the input piston must move through a greater distance.

Amusement park rides make extensive use of hydraulic systems

MACHINES - Hydraulics

Hydraulics at Work
Most machines that move very large, very heavy objects use a hydraulic system that
applies force to levers, gears or pulleys.

A hydraulic system uses a liquid under pressure to move loads. It is able to increase the
mechanical advantage of the levers in the machine. Modern construction projects use
hydraulic equipment because the work can be done quicker and safer. There are many
practical applications of hydraulic systems that perform tasks, making work much easier.

Earthmovers use hydraulics to move large

amounts of dirt from place to place.

The cherrypicker is an example of a hydraulic device

that is used to do raise workers to high places to repair
or do work at heights that normally could not be reached safely.
MACHINES - Hydraulics

Another example of a highly efficient combination of levers and hydraulics is the

backhoe.
backhoe

The backhoe is a combination of 3 levers,

the boom (class 3 lever)
the dipper (class 1 lever)
the bucket (class 1 lever).

The assembly of the 3 levers swings around on a gear-like part called the slew ring.

A modern dentist’s chair operates

on the principle of hydraulics as well.

The equipment the dentist uses applies the same principle of Pascal’s Law - using air.
and is called a pneumatic system.
MACHINES - Pneumatics

Pneumatic systems do not seal the gas (usually air) in the same way as hydraulic
systems seal in the fluid it uses. The air usually passes through the pneumatic device
under high pressure and then escapes outside the device. The high pressure air is used
to do the work.

The jackhammer is an example of a pneumatic device that is used

to do work. The loud noise of the jackhammer is the compressed
air at work. Bursts of air, under very high pressure drive the ‘chuck’
in and out of the jackhammer at high speeds, which pounds the
concrete – breaking it up into small rocks or fragments.

Staple guns and pneumatic nailers

use pulses of air pressure to drive
staples or nails into solid objects.
MACHINES - Pneumatics
Sandblasters do exactly what the name implies.
High pressure air blasts tiny sand particles out
of a nozzle to remove dirt and paint from stone
or rock. Sandblasting an old building made of
stone or brick can make it look almost like new.
Sandblasting is also used to roughen surfaces
to improve traction, by increasing friction.

Medical engineers have developed a type of cast filled

with pressurized air, which makes it fit snugly and securely.

Hovercrafts are used by the Canadian Coast Guard in search and rescue missions.
They are also used commercially, to transport people, cars
and equipment over long distances on land or water. The
hovercraft has a pump that draws air from outside and
pumps it out through small holes in the bottom of the
hovercraft. A skirt around the bottom holds enough air to
support the weight of the craft above the water or land.
Propellers on the back of the craft drive the hovercraft
forward, and rudders are used to steer it.
MACHINES - Hydraulics & Pneumatics

Hydraulics and Pneumatics in Your Body

Life depends on a pneumatic system in your body – namely the respiratory system. The
lungs that allow air to enter and leave the body as they contract and expand. Breathing
depends on changes in air pressure. You breathe in and out about 12 times a minute,
exchanging about 500ml of air each time.

Your body also depends on a complex hydraulic system – the circulatory system.
The heart (your hydraulic device) pumps the blood (fluid) around your body carrying
food and nutrients to all cells in your body.
A valve is used to control the flow of a fluid. It is a
moveable part that controls the flow by opening or c
losing. Many pumps use automatic valves controlled by
pressure to move fluids in specific directions. Pressure on
one side opens the valve and closes when the pressure
on the other side is greater. The heart is actually two
pumps that circulate your blood throughout the body.
Four automatic valves are used to help circulate the
blood. Between heartbeats the pressure changes
allowing the valves to open and close when they are
supposed to.
MACHINES - Evaluating Mechanical Devices

Mechanical devices have evolved over time because of science and the development of
new technologies. The design and function of a mechanical device is related to its
efficiency and effectiveness. What effect it has on the environment and how
advancements in science through knowledge, trial and error can also help to stimulate
change. Mechanical devices are constantly being evaluated to find ways they can be
improved.

Using Criteria To Evaluate A Device

When a device has broken down or become ineffective in performing its function, making
decisions as to what new device will replace the broken device have to be made with
specific criteria in mind. The list of criteria you decide on will determine how well the
replacement will meet your needs.

The criteria might include:

> Use
> Purpose
> Cost
> Esthetics
> Workmanship
> Reputation
MACHINES - Evaluating Mechanical Devices

Efficiency and Effectiveness

Mechanical devices are designed to work efficiently, which can be calculated by, dividing
its mechanical advantage and by its speed ratio. This is a quantitative measure of
efficiency, because it gives you a number or quantity of how efficient the device is.

Efficiency can also be described in qualitative terms. In other words, words can describe
how quickly or easily the device performs the task it is designed for. It is efficient, if it
does the task well enough to meet your needs.

Efficiency and effectiveness can be compared

When analyzing the designs of different devices
that do the same task (such as the bicycle).
Usually you are looking for the best combination
of efficiency and effectiveness at a cost you can afford.

Function and Design

Scientists, engineers and inventors want to develop mechanical devices that work the best
for the work they are designed to do.

The function is the purpose and the design is the form.

form
The design should suit the function.
MACHINES - Evaluating Mechanical Devices

Evaluation For Development

Another reason for evaluating a device is to determine how it can be improved. The
environment can have an impact on the design of a device as well. The development of
mountain terrain bicycles came as a result of how the bicycle would best function in the
rough terrain it would be used in.

Considering The Environment

The effect of a device on the environment should also be considered in evaluating it. The
negative impact on the environment should not outweigh the usefulness or effectiveness
of the device.

Evolution Of A Mechanical Device – The Pop Can Opener

To pour a liquid out of any container, you need two holes or one large hole. With two
holes, the first hole allows air into the can, the second hole lets the liquid flow out.
MACHINES - Evaluating Mechanical Devices

A Case Study
The pop can opener has changed over the years and these changes can help to explain
how evaluation can lead to improvement. The improvements can make the device more
convenient and can affect the people using it as well as the environment. The history of
this device shows how trial and error can play a role in improving technology.

The pop can opener went through four distinct designs:

The church key
The removable tab
The buttons
The non-removable tab

Each new design was the result of improving upon the previous design – which had a problem.

Criteria For Evaluation

The changes to the pop can didn’t happen by accident. Careful evaluation and improved
designs to perform the function help make the can opening changes more effective and
efficient. Questions about safety, convenience, environmental effect and recycling
potential were all factors that contributed to improvements being made. What are you
looking for in the device? is one of the first questions you should answer, when evaluating
a device.
MACHINES - Evaluating Mechanical Devices

Can Opener Design Advantages Disadvantages

Iron Can Had to be opened with

Kept things sealed
1810 a hammer and a chisel

Steel Can A simple lever Needed to have a church key

Late 1800’s Opened with a church key handy to open it

Can opened by wrapping

the metal around a key
Aluminum Can
the ‘ side-seamer ’ (1877) Sharp edges
1958
Lightweight
Sometimes the ring detached from the
tab and the can couldn’t be opened
Removable Pull Tab Ringed tab made it
It also caused a litter problem and a
1963 easy to open
safety hazard – because of the sharp
edges of the tab
Hard to push the small button open,
Push Button Tabs
Litter problem was solved consumers didn’t like using cans with
Mid 1970’s
two buttons
The ‘ecology top’ – because the
Non-removable Pull Tab tab stayed attached to the can The ring would not puncture the tab,
but would break off, but it is the best
1980 By wiggling it back and forth, it solution thus far
could be broken off
MACHINES - Evolution of Mechanical Devices

Technology Develops Through Change

New materials and technology, human and environmental needs all contribute to the
development of changes to current devices. When failure occurs, modifications must also
be made to ensure the device performs its intended function effectively and efficiently.
Trail and error also can play a role in technology development. Early devices were usually
operated by hand. Improvements to the device, by making it perform its task more
easily, came as people tried to make the device perform more efficiently with less effort.
The invention of electricity also contributed to improvements .

Advances In Science Result In New Technology

Charles Coulomb first identified electric charges in the 1700’s, but it took almost 100 years
to make electricity widely available to major Canadian cities, and it took until the 1940’s to
make it available to most communities in Canada. As scientists and engineers learned
more about this new energy source, they found ways to use it in new technologies, such
as the light bulb and the electron microscope.
MACHINES - Evolution of Mechanical Devices

Does technology change society, or does society change technology?

The automobile uses cheap fuel and therefore more vehicles are being used. With cities
so large, people need a vehicle to travel from place to place. Or, is the convenience of
having a vehicle just societies’ reason to have larger cities?

Because of the impact of scientific knowledge on society preferences for styles and sizes
of vehicles changed. Larger vehicles polluted more and cost more to operate, so society
wanted more compact fuel efficient vehicles. Today alternative fuel sources (solar-
powered, electricity, hybrids, propane and hydrogen fuel cells) are being tested and are
utilized to a very small extent.

When a new technology is being designed or an old technology improved upon the
starting point must be the function – what is it that you want the technology to do?
Scientists often have to ask themselves difficult questions, weighing the positive and
negative effects of the technology. The ethical issues must be reviewed and considered in
the decision to go ahead. Nuclear power is just one example - clean and efficient power
generation vs nuclear accidents - can devastate the environment. Consumers must also
make smart choices when purchasing goods or services. Certain considerations must be
taken into account, including how much energy is needed to make the goods or services
available?
MACHINES - Evolution of Mechanical Devices

From Particles To Trains

New technology can also develop from unrelated research .
The MAGLEV (Magnetic Levitation) trains in Japan operate on super-
conductive magnets, powered by electricity. They can travel at
speeds over 350 km/h floating on the rails.
The technology for the MAGLEV resulted from physics experiments using particle
accelerators (huge machines used to break apart atoms and other particles of matter)
which use large mounts of electricity to create powerful; magnetic and electric fields.

New technology can also result from changes to human society.

Robots were originally popularized in movies and comic books.
The word robot comes from the Czech word ‘robotnik’, meaning
workers, or slaves. They were thought to be ‘human-like’ machines
that could do the work of humans. It was originally used in a play
where millions were manufactured to work as slaves in factories.
Most robots today don’t really appear to be human-like, but they do the work of many
humans, mostly in industry. The first practical robots were developed in the 1960’s.
Robots today weld car bodies together, diffuse bombs, perform surgery, help the
handicapped and even explore other planets.
MACHINES - Evolution of Mechanical Devices

Changes In The Environment Result In New Technologies Being Developed

Since the early 1960’s the environment has impacted technological development because
people wanted to repair the negative impacts they had made on the environment.

New technologies (like recycling)

were needed to prevent more damage.

Processing materials over and over or making them

biodegradable would address some of the issues.

Other technologies (like oil skimmers)

helped make environmental clean-up
more effective and prevent further damage.
MACHINES - Evolution of Mechanical Devices

The Science of Comfort

The science of designing machines to suit people is called ‘ergonomics’. This science has
improved the design and comfort of machines we use. The testing systems that designers
use provide scientific information to researchers, allowing them to decide what type of
modification is best for its designed purpose. Comfort is an important criterion that is
evaluated.
The wheelchair has gone through many
improvements over the years. These changes
happened because of the research into
ergonomic designs and pressure put on the
designers by the consumer.
Body weight, height, size, age and gender are factors taken into account when designing
products for use by the consumer. Ergonomics is especially important in the design of
work environments where occupational safety is an issue. Carpal tunnel syndrome causes
numbness and pain in the thumb and first three fingers, caused by the continuous
repetitive movements of the fingers on the computer keyboard.
Ergonomically designed products include:

Spacesuit Infant Car Seat Keyboards